


•.c<;5;^v»-k*- o .^ 






^0^ 

















"^^^ ^ * 




V^^ 




v-o^ 






»* .0 










: "W" -^-t \/ /^ife*-- "-^.^* .- 






'>t 



bV" 



"o, ♦ 













4 o 















"^ 



QUEEN VICTORIA 

HER GRAND LIFE AND ^/ 

GLORIOUS REIGN A^V 



A Complete Story of the Career of the 
Marvelous ^ueen and Empress 



Life of the New King, Edward VII 

WITH A BRIEF HISTORY 
OF ENGLAND 



EDITED BY 



// 

john'coulter 

The Renowned Historian, formerly of London 



JOHN A. COOPER 

Editor of the Canadian Magazine 



Profusely Illustrated hy Eminent Artists 



COPYRIGHT BY JOHN COULTER I9OI 



THE LiBRARY OF 
CONGRESS, 

Two CcPiES RSCSIVEO 

MAR, 5 1901 

Copyright entry 

9k. ^. 2-?, 'for 

CLASS <^ XXc. No. 

COPY B. 



PREFACE. 



The Story of the Life of Victoria, Queen and Empress, is the Story of 
England for Sixty-four years. Her career was so closely allied with that of 
the Glorious Empire over which she reigned for so long a period that the His- 
tory of one is the History of the other. Called to the Throne when less than 
one month over eighteen years of age, she assumed the duties of her exalted 
station with modesty, bore herself with dignity and at once demonstrated that, 
while she had the frail body of a woman, she possessed, like Queen Elizabeth, 
"the heart of a King of England." 

Victoria made few, if any, mistakes. She chose, as her advisers, the wisest, 
most learned, most capable and best equipped Statesmen in the Realm; she 
encouraged, by her example, the practice of all the virtues ; as a mother, she 
elevated the Domestic Circle by caring for her children herself, and never left 
them to the mercies of nurses and attendants. 

Victoria, the Queen of a Sturdy Race, and a Fighting one as well, never 
gave her consent to mere Wars of Conquest ; she thought of the widows and 
orphans, the waste of human life and the other horrors attendant upon war- 
fare; but when it was necessary to take up arms to uphold the honor, the 
dignity, the integrity, the power and the interests of the Empire, she showed 
that indomitable spirit and courage which she never failed to evince in the 
most marked degree in the face of emergencies. 

Victoria ever had the welfare of her subjects at heart, and in return they 
bestowed upon her a love and affection never before enjoyed by an earthly 
sovereign. She was beloved for herself as a woman, in the first place ; in the 
second, as a ruler, in whose thoughts the prosperity and success of her people 
were ever uppermost. 

England was never so happy and progressive as during what will always 
be known as the Victorian Era. The Queen was the patron of everything 

15 



16 PREFACE. 

which tended to make England greater. Trade, commerce and manufac- 
tures received an impetus during the early part of her reign that made Great 
Britain the first of nations ; painting, sculpture, music, the sciences, universi- 
ties, colleges, every species of invention, and all things which tended to the 
development of the Empire and assisted in placing it in the front rank of civil- 
ization, found a warm friend, advocate and supporter in the Queen. 

England has always had the genius of colonization, and there is no part 
of the world in which her Colonies are not to be found. Englishmen, however, 
are forever Englishmen, and the Mother Country never loses its place in the 
very center of their hearts. Therefore, while busily engaged in opening up 
heretofore undiscovered and remote regions, Englishmen have the idea of 
British domination ever present. That is why the British flag flies in every 
section of the Globe, and on every Continent. 

Victoria, during her reign, saw the Dark Continent of Africa opened to 
the influences of Civilization; her Explorers penetrated into the innermost 
recesses of the African forests and were soon followed by the enterprising 
merchant and manufacturer; the engineer and miner then succeeded, gold and 
diamond mines were worked, and new sources of wealth added their millions 
to the riches of the British Empire. 

It will not be many years before the tourist can take a railroad train at 
Cairo, in Egypt, and, traversing the entire length of the Continent, reach 
Capetown, at the southernmost limit of Africa. When Victoria's reign began 
Africa was an unknown region, inhabited solely — except at the extreme north 
and south — by savage tribes which had the fiercest hatred of white men; 
now many of them are under civilized influences, and there are few portions 
of the Continent where the white man dare not go. 

Victoria also saw the awakening of China and other Far Eastern nations 
which had been hermits, refusing to have any trade or diplomatic relations 
with the Great Powers of the West; Persia, Hindustan, Burmah, Korea — 
nearly all of Asia, in fact. Japan, the Island Empire, made prodigious strides, 
and is, at the present time, practically one of the civilized nations. 

Victoria saw her possessions in India grow and expand to such an extent 
that, in 1877, that country was deemed of sufficient importance to be signally 



PREFACE. 17 

honored, and, accordingly, to her royal titles was added the Imperial one of 
Empress of India. 

Victoria was the ruler, before her death, of more human beings than any 
earthly monarch of whom history treats, with the exception of the Emperors 
of China, and it can hardly be said that these potentates ever really ruled their 
empire. The Emperor Napoleon, at the height of his power, never directed 
such an Empire as did Victoria, although it was his greatest ambition. His 
efforts to realize it brought about his fall. 

Victoria lived to see Great Britain advance in every possible direction. 
It was but eight years before she ascended the throne that Stephenson built 
his first locomotive, but it was during her reign that the railroads in England 
were constructed. There were nO' telegraph lines in England when she suc- 
ceeded to the purple, but the world was thickly strung with them when she 
died. She saw the birth and progress of submarine telegraphy ; of that most 
gigantic of forces, electricity; steel battleships were built during her reign; 
the flint-lock musket was succeeded by the magazine rifle, and the toy field guns 
of the early part of the Nineteenth Century by the machine-gun of the present 
day. 

Victoria lived to see her eldest daughter Empress of Germany, and her 
son is now Emperor of that mighty realm; one granddaughter will be the 
Queen of Greece, and another Queen of Roumania. The Czar of Russia is 
her grandson-in-law ; the Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha is her grandson, and 
her descendants are in one way or another allied to all the great reigning 
houses of Europe. 

Victoria's seventy-three children, grandchildren and great-grandchildren 
have played, and are yet to play, great parts in the history of Europe. She 
lived to see the third generation of her direct heirs to the British crown — a 
crown she had no idea she would ever wear, but which, fortunately, came to 
her by reason oi the absence of a direct heir. It was indeed a lucky day for 
Old England when Victoria ascended the throne. 

Of Victoria's nine children, some of whom are now dead, all were a com- 
fort and an honor to her, and the feeling is general that Edward VII, the new 
King and her successor, will worthily uphold the traditions of his royal line. 



THE KINGS AND QUEENS OF ENGLAND. 



SAXON KINGS. 

Began Ceased 

to to 
Reign. Reign. 
A. D. A. D. 
Egbert, first King of the Eng- 
lish 827 837 

Ethelwulf 837 858 

Ethelbald 858 860 

Ethelbcrt 858 866 

Ethelred I 866 871 

Alfred the Great 871 901 

Edward I., surnamed the 

Elder 901 9^5 

Athelstan 925 940 

Edmund 1 940 946 

Edred 946 955 

Edwy 955 958 

Edgar 958 975 

Edward II., surnamed the 

Martyr 975 979 

Ethelred II 979 1016 

Edmund II., or Ironside, 
reigns seven months with 

Canute, the Dane 1016 1016 

DANISH KINGS. 

Canute 1016 1035 

Harold 1 1035 1040 

Hardicanute 1040 1042 

SAXON LINE RESTORED. 

Edward 111., surnamed the 

Confessor 1042 1066 

Harold II., the last Saxon 

King; he reigns nine 

months 1066 1066 

NORMAN KINGS. 
William I., called the Con-. 

queror 1066 1087 

William II., surnamed Rufus.1087 iioo 

Henry I iioO I135 

Stephen 1135 1154 

HOUSE OF PLANTAGENET. 

Henry II 1154 1189 

Richard I., surnamed Coeur de 

Lion 1 189 1 199 

John 1 199 1216 

Henry III 1216 1272 

Edward 1 1272 1307 

Edward II 1307 1327 



Began Ceased 
to to 

Reign. Reign. 

A. D. A. D. 

Edward III 1327 i377 

Richard II i377 I399 

HOUSE OF LANCASTER. 

Henry IV I399 I4I3 

Henry V 1413 1422 

Henry VI 1422 1461 

HOUSE OF YORK. 

Edward IV 1461 1483 

Edward V. He was called 

King from April 9th to June 

24th 1483 1483 

Richard III 1483 1485 

THE TUDOR KINGS. 

Henry VII 1485 1509 

Henry VIII 1509 1547 

Edward VI i547 i553 

Mary I i553 1558 

Elizabeth 1558 1603 

THE STUART KINGS. 

James 1 1603 1625 

Charles 1 1625 1649 

THE COMMONWEALTH, FROM 

1649 TO 1660. 

Oliver Cromwell, Protector, from De- 
cember, 1653, to September, 1658. 

Richard Cromwell, Protector, from Sep- 
tember, 1658, to May, 1659. 

THE STUART KINGS RESTORED. 

Charles II 1660 1685 

James II 1685 1688 

William III 1689 1694 

Mary II 1689 1694 

William III. alone 1694 1702 

Anne 1702 1714 

THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 

George 1 1714 1727 

George II 1727 1760 

George III 1760 1S20 

George IV 1820 1830 

William IV 1830 1837 

Victoria 1 1837 1901 

Edward VII 1901 .... 



INTRODUCTION 



Perhaps no sovereign who has ever lived wielded a greater influence 
upon her people and upon the world than Her Majesty, Victoria, Queen of 
Great Britain and Ireland and Empress of India. Her influence was moral 
rather than political, and she was as much the mother of the nation as its 
respected and illustrious sovereign. 

Her court was pure; her life serene; 

God gave her peace; her land reposed 
A thousand claims to reverence closed 

In her as Mother, Wife and Queen. 

— Tennyson. 

For nearly sixty-four years she was the head of the British nation, and 
with the progress of the years she gained more and more of the respect and 
love of her subjects. "The Queen" was a Mother and a friend to millions of 
people who knew her only through her pictures. Moreover, she won the 
respect of the nations of the world. Surely these are tests of greatness! 
But even if history does not term her great, it will say she was wise and 
good. "And perhaps wisdom is greatness, and goodness even better than 
greatness." Her influence on the social life of her people was certainly 
wonderful and unique. 

~-^ Much of the Queen's goodness was due to her parents. Edward, Duke 
of Kent, was a noble man. Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg was a noble 
woman. Victoria was the child of their old age, and their home was hal- 
lowed by family affection. Early bereft of a father, she was brought up 
under the tender care of a sensible mother. The latter never forgot that 
she was rearing the future sovereign of a great nation. Victoria's training 
was carefully regulated so that she should admire virtue of every kind, be 
gentle and unaffected, thoughtful and natural. Great Britain owes much to 
the Duchess of Kent. 

21 



22 INTRODUCTION. 

The Queen's first request, when informed by the Archbishop of Canter- 
bury that the King was dead and that she was Queen, was: "I ask your 
prayers on my behalf." It was the devout request of a noble young sovereign 
and was the keynote to her whole life. She desired to be kept humble that 
she might fill her responsible position to the glory of the nation and of her 
God. Apparently she desired no higher tribute than that paid her in her 
later years by Alfred, Lord Tennyson — 

"She wrought her people lasting good." 

In h<;r home life, the Queen was no more and no less fortunate than 
the majority of women. Some two years after she ascended the throne she 
married the man of her choice. Prince Albert and Queen Victoria lived 
happily for twenty-one years and raised a family of nine children, four sons 
and five daughters. The happiness of this twenty-one years was unfortu- 
nately ofifset by subsequent sorrows. Her husband's untimely death was a 
great blow. Other family sorrows followed until she became so touched 
with grief that some have thought she felt too keenly the afflictions laid 
upon her. She was very fond of her sons-in-law, and the deaths of Frederick 
III, of Germany and of Prince Henry of Battenburg were great blows to 
her. She loved also her grandchildren and great-grandchildren and a break 
in the circle was keenly felt. If she grieved too much it was because she 
was a womanly woman, despite the fact that she was a Queen. 

Queen Victoria as a monarch had both less and greater influence than 
any monarch who ever reigned at London. Government by cabinet has 
been so developed that the Sovereign has little legislative or administrative 
power. The House of Commons, since the Reform Bill of 1832, has been a 
House which a sovereign could not control. These two conditions have 
grown into the Constitution and become part of it. It was impossible for 
the Queen to choose her own advisers, to dismiss those she did not like, 
or to withhold her aid and counsel from those pursuing a policy which 
might not be entirely agreeable to her. The old days of absolute monarchy 
had gone, never to return. For this reason Professor Goldwin Smith thinks 
this vast aggregation of miscellaneous possessions should not be called an 



INTRODUCTION. 33 

Empire. "Empire is absolute rule" he claims, and the sovereign of the 
British Empire is by no means an absolute ruler. The real power lies in 
the House of Commons, and decides finally on all matters. 

And yet the Queen had great power — but a power which differed in kind 
from that wielded by a Tudor or a Stuart, or even George III. She kept 
herself always well informed upon affairs of state and insisted on knowing 
everything. To each of her great ministers she expressed her wishes freely 
and asked what she would. Whether or not she had her way, she treated 
them all. Whig or Tory, with good faith and simple loyalty. Every one of 
them learned to love and to know the sovereign who was frank with them, 
and never intrigued against them, who demanded the fullest confidence and 
gave in turn as much or more than she received. | As her Empire grew, 
as her children married into the royal families of Europe, she became a 
great monarch. She was a lover of peace and undoubtedly helped to 
straighten many a tangle in European politics. She sympathized with the 
people of the United States in their long struggle to work out their destiny 
under a republican form of government, and her influence has always been 
for a good understanding between these two Anglo-Saxon peoples. It was 
as a diplomat and a peace-maker that the Queen wielded greater power than 
any other English sovereign. No other had the field at home or abroad 
for equal activities. 

The period of the Queen's reign has been for Britain a triumphal march. 
A spirit of enterprise, endeavor and achievement possessed her people. 
Colonization, emigration, research, discovery, invention, have proceeded 
with unparalleled swiftness. The British Empire has increased in area 
nearly four milHons of square miles. New nations have arisen in Canada, 
South Africa, Australia and New Zealand. The population of the British 
Isles has increased from twenty-five to forty-five millions, and many millions 
have been added in other portions of the Empire. The trade of this great 
Empire has grown by leaps and bounds. Railways, canals, steamboats, 
telegraph lines, cables, telephone systems, electric railways and a thousand 
great inventions have developed trade, industry and commerce. Mrs. 
Browning, George Eliot, and Charlotte Bronte; Carlyle and John Stuart 



24 INTRODUCTION. 

Mill; Darwin, Spencer and Huxley; Southey, Wordsworth, Tennyson, 
Browning and Swinburne; Thackeray, Dickens, Kingsley, Stevenson and 
Macaulay — these are some of the great names in the literature which have 
distinguished this wonderful period. The progress of science has been even 
more marked, and has nearly as many glorious names. 

And not only has it been a glorious period for Great Britain, but for the 
world in general. The great nations, such as Russia, Germany and the 
United States, have become greater. International Law is an evidence 
that the relations between the national units have progressed with the times. 
They are more complex and complicated. While the world has been made 
smaller by steam and electricity, it has been made greater by these and 
other developments. 

Truly the period is one worthy of consideration, and in it there is no 
more interesting figure than "The Little Widow of Windsor." 

JOHN A. COOPER. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 



Death of the Loved Queen of England and Empress of India at Osborne House Isle 
of Wight After a Short Illness-Her Reign the Longest in History-Edward VU. 
Succeeds Her-Her Family and Descendants-Child Life-Coronation-Marnage- 
Lived Down Unpopularity— Discoveries of Her Reign 



65 



CHAPTER II. 



Last Illness of the Queen and Empress-Grief of the People of England and the Colonies 
-Sorrow General Throughout the Entire Civilized World-Scenes in and Around 
Osborne House, in London, and Elsewhere-Fortune Left by the Departed Monarch. 95 



CHAPTER III. 



Belief That the Last Words Spoken by the Expiring Queen-Mother Were My Son 
Addressed to the Prince of Wales-The Latter and the German Emperor Much 
Affected-Died on the Anniversary of Her Father's Demise-January Fatal Month 
for English Royalty 



CHAPTER IV. 



King Edward and 'the Royal Family Take Their Final Look at the Face of the Queen, 
and Then the Features Are Hidden Forever from Human Gaze— The Kmg Closes 
Down the Lid of the Casket-Pathetic Scene in the Death Chamber-Remains Did 
Not Lie in State 



123 



CHAPTER V. 

King Edward VII. Takes the Oath on the Day Following the Death of His Mother— His 
Speech— Proclamation of the Accession of the New Sovereign— Quaint Ceremonies 
of Ancient Times Repeated at the Formalities in London— The King Heartily 
Cheered by His People ^^^ 

CHAPTER VI. 

Eulogies of Victoria and Congratulations to Edward Pronounced in Both Houses of 
Parliament at Westminster on the 25th of January— Noble Tribute Paid to the 
Queen by Her Last Prime Minister, the Marquis of Salisbury— The Address to 

the King— Honors to Queen Alexandra m6 

35 



26 TABLE OF CONTENTS, 

CHAPTER VII. 

Edward VII., King of Great Britain and Ireland and Emperor of India— His Personality 
—Well Fitted to Assume the Duties of Sovereign— His Ability Is Unquestioned- 
Familiar with Many of the Details of Government and Administration— A Favorite 
with All Classes of His Subjects 156 

CHAPTER VIII. 

England's New Queen— Beautiful Descendant of the Old Viking Kings and Conquerors 
of the North— Marriage with the Prince of Wales the Result of a Genuine Love 
Match— Greatly Beloved by the People of England I74 

CHAPTER IX. 

The Last Year of the Nineteenth Century a Sad One for the Fast-Failing Monarch, the 
Boer War and Various Family Troubles Causing Her to Become a Mental Wreck- 
Pathetic Story of Her Breaking Down— The Marquis of Salisbury, the Premier of 
the Closing Years of Her Life 180 

CHAPTER X. 

Memorial Tributes by the Great Rulers of Earth and the Most Eminent Men of the 
World to the Character, Virtues, Goodness and Wisdom of the Departed Queen and 
Empress— Her High Standard of Womanliness— Her Demise Regarded as a Mourn- 
ful Event Everywhere — Even England's Hereditary Enemies Praise Her Late 
Majesty ^95 

CHAPTER XL 

Obsequies of Queen Victoria the Most Magnificent Naval Spectacle Ever Seen on Earth 
—Miles of Formidable Battle Ships, Almost Every Nation Being Represented— 
Millions of Sorrowing People Reverently Gaze Upon the Funeral Pageant as It 
Passes Through the Streets of London to Windsor— Fifty Emperors, Kings and 
Princes Follow the Bier — The Great Ruler Laid to Rest Beside Her Husband in 
the Beautiful Mausoleum at Frogmore 210 

CHAPTER XII. 

Victorian Chronology From 1837 to 1901 — Occurrences of That Period, in Some of 
Which the Queen Was the Principal Figure — Mighty Changes Wrought Within 
Three-Score Years — A Concise Summing Up of Happenings 249 

CHAPTER XIII. 

The "Victorian Era" Representative of the Fullness of the Nineteenth Century — A Period 
of Magnificent Achievements and Progress in Trade, Commerce, Science, Art and 
Invention Such as the World Had Never Known Before in Its Existence 256 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 27 

CHAPTER XIV. 

Sources of European Royalty — The Late Queen Victoria's Family Name Said to be 
"Azon," and Not Guelpli — Some Curious Things in Genealogy Which Are Avowed 
to be Authentic — Most Royalties Have Close Kinship with Each Other, it is 
Claimed 274 

CHAPTER XV. 

Victoria's First Year on the Throne Sees the Telegraph Made a Practical Certainty — 
Progress Made in Electrical Inventions — Telephone, Phonograph, Lighting Cities, 
the Trolley, the Dynamo, Electric Transportation — Textile Progress — Sanitary 
Science 286 

CHAPTER XVI. 

What the Genius of the Inventor Has Done in the Way of Improving Arms, Arma- 
ments, and Everything Connected With the Armies and Navies of the World 
During the Period of Victoria's Occupancy of the British Throne — Great Guns Able 
to Penetrate the Thickest Armor Yet Built 294 

CHAPTER XVII. 

New King All- Absorbing Subject of Interest — Queen Alexandra Loath to Take Up 
Her New Duties — Brilliant Opening of Parliament — How Edward VII., When 
Prince of Wales, Became Lost on the Prairies of Illinois, While Visiting the 
United States in i860 — He Made Friends With the People There — Princess Louise 
and Her Husband, the Duke of Argyll, on a Hunt for Spanish Millions Said to be 
Buried in the Sea — Proposed Scottish Memorial for Queen Victoria — Romantic 
Attachment of the German Crown Prince and an English Princess 301 

CHAPTER XVIII. 

Buckingham Palace, in London, the Headquarters of the New Sovereign and the Scene 
of Courtly Splendor — Queen Victoria's Dislike For the Place — Would Not Reside 
There, Although She Added to It in an Architectural Way and Handsomely Embel- 
lished It — History of the Structure — Not an Ugly Building, as So Many Have 
Asserted — Marlborough House, According to Rumor, to Pass Again to Its Former 
Owners — A Remarkable Dispute — Heirs to the English Throne — Libraries 317 

CHAPTER XIX. 

Lord Rosebery, Former Premier of Great Britain, Writes of the Future of England in 
the Way of Trade and Commerce— Reasons Why Wars Should Cease — America and 
Germany as Competitors of English Merchants and Manufacturers — Irresistible 
Power of Combined Capital — Scientific Training for Business Men — England's 
Commercial Training Too Insular, His Lordship Thinks — Estimate of Queen 
Victoria's Character, by T. P. O'Connor— Death of the Duke of Saxe-Coburg- 
Gotha a Sad Blow to the Queen ,29 



28 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER XX. 

What is to be the Future of the Great Empire of India?— The City of Herat, the Key 
to India, Which Has Figured so Prominently in the History of the World— The 
Psychological Moment When an Attack Will be Made by Russia Not Known by 
Either Generals or Statesmen, but It Is Sure to Come— Herat, the Granary of the 
Southern Oxus— A Point of the Utmost Strategic Importance— The Colossus of • 
the North Watching Herat with Hungry, Eager Eyes— Great Britain and the 
Inevitable Conflict for the Possession of India— Magnificent and Beneficial Work on 
the Nile in Egypt— Casualties Among British South African Field Force Up to 
End of January, 1901 345 

CHAPTER XXI. 

Victoria a Woman of Numberless Sorrows, Bereavements, Burdens and Cares— Her 
Strength of Character — Not Crushed Under the Awful Weight of Woe — 
Princess Alice Her Greatest Comforter at the Time of the Death of the Prince Con- 
sort—The Princess Royal and Her Husband, the Latter Victoria's Pride— Christmas 
Gifts for Her Troops in the Field 357 

CHAPTER XXII. 

The Crown and the Colonies — The Condition of Britain's Colonial Empire at Victoria's 
Accession — The Neo-Colonial Idea and Its Evolution During the Victorian Era — 
Birth of the Colonial Office as a Special Department of State— The B. N. A. Act the 
Fullest Charter Possessed by Any Crown Colony — Queen's Personal Influence in 
Colonial Government — Oath of Allegiance — Canada at the Jubilee — Culmination of 
Colonial Patriotism in Contributing Troops for Imperial Defence 371 

CHAPTER XXIII. 

The Queen's Representatives in Canada — Provisions in the Canadian Constitution 
Respecting the Queen — Former Practice of Royal Representation and the Steps By 
Which It Has Attained Its Present Form — Sovereign's Functions Defined — Notable 
Viceroys, and Incidents of Their Administrations — Evidences of Her Majesty's Spe- 
cial Interest in Canada — Her Personal Grace Toward Baroness Macdonald, Sir 
John Thompson, the National Council of Women, and to the Soldiers Returning 
From the War 385 

CHAPTER XXIV. 

The Prince of Wales' Visit to Canada — Embarkation at Plymouth, loth July, i860 — 
Arrival at St. John, Newfoundland — Reception at Quebec — Driving Last Rivet of 
Victoria Tubular Bridge at Montreal — Laying First Stone of Ottawa Parliament 
Buildings — Trouble at Kingston — Brilliant Levee and Grand Ball at Toronto — Laying 
First Stone of Brock's Monument — Visit to New York 401 

CHAPTER XXV. 

Progress of Canada Under the Queen — Rebellion of 1837-38 in Progress — Lord Durham 
and His Famous Report — The Act of Union — Struggle for Responsible Govern- 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 29 

ment — Canada Given Control of Customs and Post Office — Confederation of the 
Provinces — Building of the Grand Trunk, Canadian Pacific and Intercolonial Rail- 
ways — Addition of Manitoba and British Columbia — Development of Trade — 
Literary and Social Progress — Imperial Feeling 418 



PART II. 

BRIEF HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



CHAPTER XXVI. 

Britain at the Time of the Roman Conquest, 55 B. C. — How the Islands Were After- 
wards Overrun, and the Outcome — The Beginning of England's Greatness — 
Struggles of the People During the Early Centuries of the Christian Era 445 

CHAPTER XXVII. 

Little Known of the Mode of Life of the Dwellers of Early England — Certain Sort of 
Freedom Enjoyed by the Inhabitants at Various Periods — Sharing of Land in Com- 
mon by Members of the Tribes — Oppression of the Lords, Whose Yoke Was Heavy 
Upon the Necks of the Men Under Them — The First Kings of England 464 

CHAPTER XXVIII. 

William the Conqueror Crowned King of England After the Battle of Hastings — The 
Islands Under Various Rulers — Condition of the People of Britain — Wars and 
Conquests — Events Up to the Accession of Henry VII 489 

CHAPTER XXIX. 

First of the Tudors— "Bluff King Hal" and His Six Consorts— How He Was Rid of 
All of Them With the Exception of the Beautiful Katharine Parr — Henry VIIL, 
the Founder of the British Navy, the Pride of the Nation 510 

CHAPTER XXX. 

Edward VI., Successor of His Father, Henry VIIL— Never Really King, Being a Minor 
—Brief Reign of "Bloody Mary," and the Glorious Period Covered by the 
Sovereignty of Elizabeth, the "Virgin Queen"— Last of the Tudors— Her Successor 
the Son of the Beautiful Mary, Queen of Scots— James I., House of Stuart— Charles 
I. and His Unhappy Death 525 

CHAPTER XXXL 

Cromwell's Protectorate and the Commonwealth — His Despotic Rule — Dissolution of 
"Long Parliament"— Charles II. on the Throne— Plague and Fire in London- 
James II. — William and Mary — "Good" Queen Anne, Last of the Stuarts — The 
Four Georges of Brunswick — William IV., the "Sailor King"— Victoria 1 545 




QUEEN VICTORIA. 




HIS ROYAL AND IMPERIAL MAJESTY, EDWARD VII. 




HER ROYAL AND IMPERIAL MAJESTY ALEXANDRA. 




THE DUKE OF CORNWALL AND YORK. HEIR-APPARENT 
TO THE ENGLISH THRONE. 




DOWAGER EMPRESS OF GERMANY. (Eldest Child of Queen Victoria.) 




EMPEROR AND EMPRESS OF GERMANY. 




THE CROWN PRINCE OF GERMANY. 





p- 


^^^^^^^^k'^'^ ^T^V^ 




.M.Msstii^^^^m^BL^ 1 




^^m^^. ^ 






r 







H. I. M. THE EMPRESS OF RUSSIA. 




QUEEN VICTORIA IN HER CORONATION ROBES. 




QUEEN VICTORIA TAKING THE OATH. 







QUEEN VICTORIA'S FAMILY TREE. 



It 

1!- 

< 


?!- 

1 

^^ 
II — 

«•<! 

ll 

II 

■< 

U— 

ft— 


— eI 




8. 






S^IsS 




2# 


S a'i-v 


J 

z 
1 


'■s 


1^ 


iN^i— 


-s 


il^ 




ow ■*"* 






>a 


<«i 




E oS 


E'i 




H 


"3 


I 




is 


w 

E.? 

s 
|'s||t 

-el 

a-'' 
~e| 

25aZ-- 
-ii 

ill 

"e'S 


2<^ 


lyilf 


to. 




o'- 

<-* 

s 

fill 

-if 


<< 

b — 


1 

;| 


5? 


illil 


d^ 


Is-.- 
— ^1 




.. 


Sii 


Mil 


si 


2 

— e| 


<- 


o^ 


-=.<: 




, iiifi 

If — ^F"' 




it 


<-<i 




ft 






s.? 


Is 


iff — 




> 

h.9 




--* 


1| 


m 

I* 


gg. 


gs 


< 


3^ 


w^ 


1?^ U°'A 




1^ 




> 

if- 


— sf 
il-oil — 


S-i 




liii 

.sol-" 




&-^ 





CO 

< 

O 
H 
U 

> 

w 
w 

a 

o 

H 

>^ 
W 




tA 
O 

2 pi, 

Q « 

Pi < 
9 I 

H w 

■< a 
M u 

C3 g 



o § 



> "< 

en U 

w o 



QUEEN VICTORIA 



HER GRAND LIFE AND GLORIOUS REIGN 



CHAPTER I. 

Death of the Loved ftueen of England and Empress of India at Osborne House, 
Isle of Wight, After a Short Illness — Her Keign the Longest in History — 
Edward VII. Succeeds Her — Her Family and Descendants — Child Life — 
Coronation — Marriage — Lived Down Unpopularity. 

QUEEN VICTORIA, of England, and also Empress of India, the 
oldest of English monarchs and who occupied the throne longer than 
any ruler who ever lived, died on January 22, 1901, at 6:30 o'clock, 
p. m., at Osborne House, Isle of Wight, all her surviving children being at 
her bedside except the Dowager Empress of Germany (Princess Victoria), 
who was herself slowly dying of an incurable ailment in Germany. 

Had Queen Victoria lived until the 24th of May, 1901, she would have 
been eighty-two years of age, having been born on that date in 1819. As it 
was, she was eighty-one years, seven months and twenty-nine days old, and 
had reigned sixty-three years, seven months and two days, exceeding that of 
George III. by four years. He was but a few days younger than Victoria 
when he died, but his reign had not been, as was hers, continuous and unbroken, 
as his mental state was such at times that it was necessary to appoint a regent, 
the Prince of Wales, afterward George IV., acting in that capacity. 

Henry III. reigned fifty-six years, lived sixty-five years. 

Edward III. reigned fifty years, lived sixty-five years. 

Elizabeth reigned forty-five years, lived seventy years. 

65 



66 DEATH OF QUEEN VICTORIA. 

Immediately after the Queen's death her son, Albert Edward, Prince of 
Wales, became King of England under the title of Edward VII. The last 
King of England bearing the name of Edward was the son of Henry VIIL, 
who did not live long, being sickly and weakly. He was but nine years old 
when he became King and died when he was but fifteen. 

The English people preferred that their new King be known as an Edward, 
rather than take the title of Albert I. He was named Albert, after his father, 
the Prince Consort, who was Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha when he married 
the Queen in 1840. 

When Queen Victoria came to the throne in 1837 the royal family of 
England had dwindled to meager proportions, the direct line of succession 
being centered in one girl of eighteen, Victoria. When she died her children, 
grandchildren and great-grandchildren living numbered seventy-three, and 
the Queen lived to see the third generation of her direct heirs to the British 
Crown. Among her grandsons and grandsons-in-law were a reigning Czar, 
an Emperor and a Grand Duke. Her eldest daughter was Empress Dowager 
of Germany, and her descendants will, in time, wear the crowns of Den- 
mark, Greece and Roumania. 

From the union of Victoria of England with Albert of Saxe-Coburg sprang 
nine children, forty grandchildren, and thirty-five great-grandchildren. Death 
removed eleven of these — two sons and one daughter, one granddaughter, and 
seven grandsons. Marriage brought her Majesty nine daughters and sons-in- 
law. Three of the latter died before her, while thirteen of the fourteen grand- 
sons and granddaughters-in-law survived her. 

As the genealogical tree of the English royal family shows, the royal house 
has spread out its branches far and wide into foreign courts. Her Majesty had 
four sons and five daughters : 

Empress Frederick. 

The Prince of Wales. 

Princess Alice. Grand Duchess of Hesse. 

Duke Alfred of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. 

Princess Christian. 

Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyle. 



DEATH OF QUEEN VICTORIA. 67 

The Duke of Connaught. 

The Duke of Albany. 

Princess Beatrice, Princess Henry of Battenberg. 

Almost at the root of the tree is the Empress Frederick with her late 
consort, the Emperor Frederick of Germany, their family branching out on 
either side. Above come the Prince and Princess of Wales with their descend- 
ants ; still higher up are the Duke and Duchess of Saxe-Coburg and family ; 
beyond them appear Princess Louise and the Marquis of Lome, her husband, 
now Duke of Argyle, with the Duke and Duchess of Alban}^ and children 
further on. 

To the left, above the German imperial family, are Princess Alice and Grand 
Duke of Hesse with their descendants ; over them come Prince and Princess 
Christian and family ; then the Duke and Duchess of Connaught and children, 
and finally, at the top. Princess Beatrice with her husband, Prince Henry of 
Battenberg, and children. 

The Emperor and Empress Frederick had eight children, and lost two sons, 
Sigismund and Waldemar. Their eldest son is the reigning German Emperor 
WilHam II., married to Augusta of Schleswig-Holstein, and having six sons 
— Frederick William, Crown Prince, Eitel-Frederick, Adalbert, Augustus, 
Oscar, and Joachim — and one daughter, Louise; and the second is Prince 
Henry, married to Irene of Hesse, and having two sons — Waldemar and 
Sigismund. Of the daughters Charlotte is married to the hereditary Prince 
of Saxe-Meiningen, and has one daughter, Feodore; Victoria to Adolph of 
Schaumburg-Lippe ; Sophia to the Crown Prince of Greece, her children being 
George, Alexander, and Helen ; and Margaret to Frederick Charles of Hesse, 
having four sons — Frederick, Maximilian, Philip, and Wolfgang Moritz. 

The new King and Queen of England (so long known as the Prince and 
Princess of Wales) have had six children, and have lost the eldest and youngest 
sons — the Duke of Clarence and Prince Alexander. Their surviving son, 
the Duke of York, married to Princess May of Teck, has two sons, Edward and 
Albert, and a daughter. Princess Victoria. The Duke of York is now the 
heir apparent to the British throne. The three daughters are Princess Louise 
(married to the Duke of Fife, and having two girls — the Ladies Alexandra 



68 THE PROCLAMATION OF SUCCESSION. 

and Maud Duff), tlie Princess Victoria, and Princess Maud, the latter married 
to Prince Charles of Denmark. 

Of the union of Princess Alice with the Grand Duke of Hesse five children 
survive. The present Grand Duke of Hesse, married to his cousin, Victoria 
Melita of Saxe-Coburg, with one daughter, Elizabeth; Princess Victoria, 
married to Prince Louis of Battenberg, with two girls and a boy, Alice, Louise, 
and George; Elizabeth, wife of the Russian Grand Duke Serge; Irene, mar- 
ried to Prince Henry of Prussia, with two boys, Waldemar and Sigismund; 
Alix, married to the Czar Nicholas IL. with two daughters, Olga and Tatiana. 
Two children died young, Mary and Frederick. 

Five children were the share of the Duke and Duchess of Saxe-Coburg. 
The Duke died in July, 1900, and was succeeded by his nephew. The former 
was the Duke of Edinburgh before he accepted the dukedom his nephew 
inherited. Marie, married to the Crown Prince of Roumania, and having a 
son and daughter, Carol and Elizabeth, Victoria Melita, wife of the Grand 
Duke of Hesse, and having one daughter, Elizabeth ; Alexandra, married to 
the hereditary Prince of Hohenlohe-Langenburg, and having a son, Godfried 
Victor; Beatrice, and Alfred, killed in 1899, while hunting. The present 
Grand Duke is Charles Edward, Duke of Albany. 

Prince and Princess Christian have two sons and two daughters — Chris- 
tian-Victor and Albert, Victoria and Louise, the latter married to Prince 
Aribert of Anhalt. Their youngest son, Harold, died in infancy. 

Princess Louise and the Duke of Argyle are childless, but the Duke and 
Duchess of Connaught have a boy and two girls — Arthur, Margaret, and 
Victoria Patricia. 

Two children were born to the Duke of Albany (dead) and the Duchess — 
Alice and the present young Duke Charles Edward of Albany. 

Last of all come the four children of Princess Beatrice and the late Prince 
Henry of Battenberg — Ena, Alexander, Leopold, and Maurice. 

THE PROCLAMATION OF SUCCESSION. 

The proclamation of the death of Queen Victoria and the succession of 
King Edward was issued immediately upon the Queen's death by the Premier, 



QUEEN VICTORIA'S RELIGIOUS SIDE 69 

Lord Salisbury, and the Archbishop of Canterbury, with the sanction of the 
Privy Council. 

It was then made public throughout the realm through the Lord Mayors, 
the Lord Lieutenants of counties, etc. 

The proclamation read: 

"Whereas, It has pleased Almighty Gkjd to call to his mercy our late sover- 
eign lady, Queen Victoria, of blessed and glorious memory, by whose decease 
the imperial crown of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland is 
solely and rightfully come to the high and mighty Prince Albert Edward. We 
therefore, the Lords spiritual and temporal of this realm, being here with 
those of her late Majesty's Privy Council, with numbers of other principal 
gentlemen of quality, with the Lord Mayor, Aldermen, and citizens of London, 
do now hereby with one voice and consent of tongue and heart publish and 
proclaim that the high and mighty Prince Albert Edward is now by the death 
of our late sovereign of happy memory become our only lawful and rightful 
liege Lord Edward by grace of God King of the United Kingdom of Great 
Britain and Ireland, defender of the faith, to whom we do acknowledge all 
faith and constant obedience, with all hearty and humble affection, beseeching 
God, by whom Kings and Queens do reign, to bless our royal King Edward 
with long and happy years to^ reign over us." 

QUEEN VICTORIA'S RELIGIOUS SIDE 

Apart from considerations of church or state. Queen Victoria's religion 
ruled her life, even in its smallest acts. In sickness or in health, in all times 
of sorrow or distress, her faith always sustained her. At one period, in 
making reference to the religious training of the Princess Royal Queen Vic- 
toria wrote : 

*T am quite clear that she should have great reverence for God and religion, 
but that she should have the feeling of devotion and love which our Heavenly 
Father encourages His earthly children to have for Him, and not one of fear 
and trembling, and that the thoughts of death and after life should not be 
represented in an alarming and forbidding view, and that she should be made 



70 NARROW ESCAPES FROM DEATH. 

to know as yet no difference of creeds, and not think that she can only pray 
on her knees, or that those who do not kneel are less fervent and devoiit 
in their prayers." 

Queen Victoria always set the example of having family worship. In the 
earlier years of her reign she attended prayers with her entire family and 
household before breakfast, but oi late her devotions had been within the 
privacy of her own room. 

Her Majesty repeatedly showed solicitude for the instruction of the chil- 
dren of those employed in her service. She had a school for their benefit 
started close to Buckingham Palace, and some years ago she used to call on 
Sunday afternoon and conduct a short Bible reading for the children. In 
virtue of this it may be claimed with all truthfulness that Queen Victoria 
was a Sunday school teacher. 

It is a fact that has been seldom noted that Queen Victoria was the first 
monarch to have established a strictly private Sunday worship, and the private 
chapels or prayer rooms which she had built to each of her palaces at Osborne 
and Balmoral are evidence of her devotional spirit, which peculiarly revolted 
against church-going as a public parade. For centuries the sovereigns of 
England, when resident in London, attended service in semi-public state at 
St. James' Chapel Royal. 

Queen Victoria never permitted elaborate musical performances at her 
services. She liked old-fashioned hymns, such as ''Rock of Ages," "Thy Will 
Be Done," and "Great God, What Do I See and Hear?" The Queen always 
observed Sunday as a day of rest from business transactions. She never 
signed a state document on the Lord's day. She was always careful to see 
that everyone employed in her service had an opportunity for attending 
church. She saw to it that they were not compelled to perform work that was 
not absolutely necessary on Sunday. 

HER NARROW ESCAPES FROM DEATH. 

The late Queen and Empress h.ad many narrow escapes from death by 
assassination and accident. From the time she was a baby upward her life 



NARROW ESCAPES FROM DEATH, 71 

had been constantly imperiled. When only six months of age she escaped 
death as though by a miracle. 

Her parents, the Duke and Duchess of Kent, had taken the royal child to 
Sidmouth, Devonshire, for a change of air. A boy shooting sparrows acci- 
dentally discharged his gun opposite a window at which a nurse, holding the 
infant in her arms, was standing. The glass was completely shattered and 
the nurse's sleeve was riddled with shot, but both the nurse girl and the baby 
Princess escaped injury. 

Four years after the Princess' life was saved by an Irish soldier. The 
pony carriage in which she was driving upset and would have fallen on her 
had it not been for the promptness with which the soldier, who was passing 
by, seized the little girl's white frock and tossed her up intO' his arms. 

Curiously enough, the soldier was not aware until fifty-four years had 
passed that the child whose life he had saved had grown up to be the Queen 
of England. 

No fev/er than seven attempts have been made upon Her Majesty's life, 
but with the exception of a slight wound on her cheek she escaped scathless 
from all these attacks. 

A short time after her marriage an insane potboy named Oxford fired twice 
at the Queen in Hyde Park. 

Two years afterward, as the Queen and Prince Albert were driving home 
from church, the Prince Consort saw a man present a pistol and fire point 
blank at Her Majesty. The weapon fortunately flashed in the pan. 

The next day the same man, a fellow named Francis, again fired at the 
Queen. This time he was captured, tried for high treason, and sentenced to 
death, but by royal command his sentence was commuted to transportation 
for life. 

The same day the royal clemency was made known a deformed lad named 
Bean attempted to take Her Majesty's life. 

Seven years afterward a man named Hamilton fired at the Queen, and the 
next year an ex-captain of hussars named Pate cut open Her Majesty's face 
with a blow from a stick. 

In 1872 a lad named O'Connor was prevented from firing at the Queen 



72 CHILD LIFE OF THE QUEEN. 

by a gendarme, and ten years later a man named Maclean fired at Her Majesty 
as she was entering her carriage at Windsor Station. 

Soon after the Coronation, while Victoria was driving with her mother near 
Highgate Hill, the horses took fright. 

They were stopped by a publican, who, when asked to name his reward, 
said: "Permission to put the Queen's arms on my sign." 

Next day he received the present of a handsome purse filled with coin, 
of which he laconically observed that "it was heavy, very heavy." 

The Queen was also in peril of her life by a carriage accident in Scotland, 
and twice had been in imminent danger at sea. 

When a girl of fourteen, during a yachting excursion, she was dragged 
from under a falling mainmast by a pilot named Saunders, and so saved from 
death. 

Forty-two years after this the royal yacht collided with a vessel named 
the Mistletoe, and two people were drowned within sight of the Queen. 

In all these trying experiences the Queen maintained her self-possession, 
observing that her one thought on such occasions was the regret at leaving 
certain duties in which she was then engaged unfulfilled. 

CHILD LIFE OF THE QUEEN. ' 

The child life of Alexandrina Victoria, the dead Queen and Empress, as 
the historian, the court gossip, and the flatterer have recorded it, had somber- 
ness for its setting. 

This child of the Duke and Duchess of Kent was born in Kensington 
Palace, London, on May 24, 1819. George III. was still King. Seven of his 
sons were still living and the father of the babe was fourth among them. As 
the heir presumptive to the throne of Great Britain, this babe, who saw the 
light of that May mo'rning in the old palace, hardly was regarded by those who 
kept a finger upon the political pulses of the empire. 

Even in the christening of the child there was disappointment to the father, 
already suffering the displeasure of his own royal parent. It was the wish of 
Duke Edward that the infant might be called Elizabeth. At the baptismal 
font this preference was on his lips, biitj as Mr. Jeafferson writes : 



CHILD LIFE OF THE QUEEN. 73 

"However, in answer to the usual and formal inquiry during the per- 
formance of the baptismal rite, the Prince Regent gave no name but Alexan- 
drina. Consenting to the Duke of Kent's entreaty that Alexandrina should be 
associated with another name, the Prince Regent said, 'Then give her her 
mother's name also, but it may not precede that of the Emperor.' Whereupon 
the Princess was named Alexandrina Victoria, instead of Elizabeth, as her 
father wished her to be named, and instead of Georgiana, as the Prince Regent 
desired her tO' be called." 

The parents of the Princess Alexandrina Victoria w^re in comparative 
poverty. Pier mother, the Duchess, was cordially hated by both George IV. 
and William IV. She had been Princess Victoria Mary Louisa, daughter of 
Francis, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. Already she had been widowed 
of Prince Charles of Leiningen, and before the babe in arms v/as eight months 
old her English husband died, leaving her a virtual stranger in a strange land. 

In her loneliness this tv>rice-wido'wed mother of England's future Queen 
devoted herself to her child. She was a mother to the babe in more senses than 
most maternal parents of royal blood. Lonely, desolate, but never brooding, 
this German mother tended her child. 

To this sensible v/oman England owes it, no doubt, that Victoria, as 
Queen, displayed iji so slight degree the faults of her paternal ancestors. 
Herself averse to the pomp and the frivolity of the court, the Duchess of Kent 
preferred to bring up her daughter in the seclusion of her home, where instruc- 
tion was furnished her in the graceful accomplishments as well as the more 
solid studies, as befitted a Princess of the most brilliant prospects. For, from 
the time that William IV. ascended the throne the succession of the Princess 
Victoria was considered certain. 

Of this child life of the future Queen even the radical Leigh Hunt has 
given a pretty glimpse in declaring that it used to give him a keen sensation of 
delight to see the young Princess crossing the street affectionately holding 
a girl of her own age by the hand, and not taking notice of the gorgeous foot- 
man in scarlet who followed behind. It is a pretty picture — that of the girl, 
destined to such a place in history, walking hand-in-hand, girl fashion, with 
another girl, and forgetful of everything save that she had a companion whom 



Y4 CHILD LIFE OF THE QUEEN. 

she loved, and to whom she could chatter with a free tongue and from an 

open heart. 

Lord Albemarle, a resident of the palace at the time, wrote that he used to 
watch sometimes "the movements of a bright, pretty child, seven years of age. 
She was in the habit of watering the plants immediately under the windows. 
It was amusing to see how impartially she divided the contents of the watering- 
pot between the flowers and her own little feet." 

This was the childish Victoria, who, in those days, so often breakfasted 
in the garden of the palace, with only a page to attend to her wants, acquiring 
that love of out-of-doors which may have had so much to do with lengthening 
her span of life. 

But as the Queen herself has said, it was a dull childhood. Living con- 
stantly under her mother's personal observation, the child in her tender age 
made the acquaintance of the few persons who visited the Duchess of Kent 
during her long period of stately seclusion. Passing so much time with her 
elders, the child, who seldom had a playmate of her own age, naturally became 
old for her years. 

Her governess was Baroness Lehzen, daughter of a Hanoverian clergy- 
man, who took general charge of Victoria's education from the age of five 
years. The Rev. George Davys, afterward Bishop of Peterborough, also was 
her regular instructor, and specialists were employed in certain branches. She 
became proficient in music and in drawing. It is recorded that at the age of 
eleven she could speak French, Italian and German, and had made a good 
beginning in Latin and Greek. At this age, too, she was started on the 
systematic study of the English constitution. She was directed also into an 
unusually thorough study of general history. Meanwhile, she had plenty of 
play and exercise, and became an admirable rider. 

It had been the purpose of her mother to keep the young girl from the 
whirl of court life. As she approached her eighteenth anniversary, however, 
she made her appearance there as heir-apparent to the throne. About that time 
Parliament voted her an additional £10,000 a year. 

On May 24, 1837, the young Princess attained the age of eighteen — the age 
of legal majority. The anniversary was observed with public celebrations 



THE CORONATION OF VICTORIA. 75 

throughout the country. To an address of congratulation from the City 
Council of London the Duchess of Kent replied for her daughter, who then 
said simply : "My mother has expressed all my feelings." 

This was the young woman who within a month was to be on the throne. 

The summons came in dramatic manner. At half-past 2 o'clock on the 
morning of June 20, 1837, King William died. The Archbishop of Can- 
terbury and Lord Conyngham started for Kensington Palace. Arriving at 
early dawn, after long knocking at the gates they roused the servitor and 
requested immediately to see "the Queen" on business of state. After some 
delay an attendant appeared, reporting that the Princess was asleep and could 
not be disturbed. They assured her that their business required instant 
attention. 

Soon thereafter the young Queen entered clad in a dressing gown and 
shawl and with slippers on her feet. Greville, Secretary of the Privy Council, 
and Court Chronicler, reports that on Lord Conyngham's uttering the signifi- 
cant words, "Your Majesty," she put forth her hand to be kissed before he 
proceeded, and that he, dropping on one knee, kissed her hand, and then gave 
the tidings of the King's death. 

Another well-known authority adds that when the Archbishop had made 
the formal announcement of her accession to the throne her first words were : 
"I ask your prayers on my behalf." 

The dreams of the mother had been realized. 

THE CORONATION OF VICTORIA. 

Following the death of King William IV. a meeting of the Privy Council 
was called for 1 1 o'clock on June 21, 1837. One hundred of the leading nobles, 
statesmen and court dignitaries formed this body. Few of them had seen the 
young woman whO' was to control the destinies of an empire. Into this august 
presence the young Queen came, self-possessed and unfettered by any self- 
conscious assumptions. If there were not whisperings as to what manner of 
woman she might be, there was at least an atmosphere of speculation in the 
room. 

Victoria entered this room with dignified tread, bowed to the assemblage, 



76 THE CORONATION OF VICTORIA. 

took her seat, and read her declaration. Members of the council were sworn 
to allegiance, kneeling and kissing her hand. Afterwards she received the 
foreign Ambassadors, who were presented to her one by one. 

Greville, who by no means was given to snobbish adulation, says of this 

scene : 

"Never was there anything like the first impression she produced, or the 
chorus of praise and admiration which was raised about her manner and be- 
havior, and certainly not without justice. It was extraordinary, and something 
far beyond what was looked for. Her extreme youth and inexperience natur- 
ally excited intense curiosity to see how she would act on this trying occasion, 
and there was a considerable assemblage at the palace, notwithstanding the 
short notice which was given. . . . 

"She bowed to the Lords, took her seat, and then read her speech in a clear, 
distinct and audible voice, and without any appearance of fear or embarrass- 
ment. She was quite plainly dressed and in mourning. After she had read her 
speech and taken and signed the oath for the security of the Church of Scot- 
land, the Privy Councilors were sworn, the two royal Dukes first by them- 
selves; and as these two old men, her uncles, knelt before her, swearing 
allegiance and kissing her hand, I saw her blush up to the eyes, as if she felt 
the contrast between their civil and natural relations, and this was the only 
sign of emotion which she evinced. Her manner to them was graceful and 
engaging. She kissed them both and rose from the chair and moved toward 
the Duke of Sussex, who was old and infirm. She seemed rather bewildered 
at the multitude of men whO' were sworn, and who came, one after another, to 
kiss her hand, but she did not speak tO' anybody, nor did she make the slightest 
difference in her manner or show any in her countenance, to any individual of 
any rank, situation, or party. . . . 

"She went through the whole ceremony with perfect calmness and self- 
possession, but at the same time with a graceful modesty and propriety par- 
ticularly interesting and ingratiating." 

Of this impressive occasion other men of experience and judgment have 
written, making it plain that the assembly was astonished and delighted with 
the young woman who at eighteen years of age had an empire at her feet. 



THE CORONATION OF VICTORIA. 11 

Lord Lyndhurst, Earl Grey, Lord Palmerston, Sir Robert Peel, the Duke of 
Wellington, and other titled personages of the time are on record attesting to 
amazement at the Queen's bearing on this most trying occasion. Her perfect 
elocution was praised; her gracious rising from her chair tO' meet the two 
royal Dukes, her aged uncles — one of them infirm — whom she kissed when 
they came forward to kneel in allegiance ; her dignified grace in receiving the 
foreign Ambassadors. 

Charles Sumner, one of the most famous of American Statesmen, was 
present at the coronation of the young Queen, and wrote : 

"I was astonished and delighted. 

"The speech made by Her Majesty was a noble one, and I never heard 
anything better in all my life." 

Fanny Kemble, the great actress, who' also' heard it, says : "I think it is 
impossible to hear a more excellent utterance than that of the Queen's English 
by the English Queen." 

The English court of the time was blase and notoriously corrupt, but it was 
moved to a kindred sympathy with the girl Queen. And Greville testifies that 
she was a girl, entering with high zest intO' an enjoyment of all the magnificent 
novelties of her situation, while her affability and grace awakened the public 
to a wild enthusiasm. "Coronation madness" was the phraseology of radical 
critics. 

The ceremonies and splendors attending the coronation of the young 
Queen seldom have been approached in modern history. 

London was thronged. The dawn of June 28 found the city in a fever of 
anticipation. For the masses the royal procession was the feature of the occa- 
sion. In this parade, in addition to the troops, vv^ere twelve royal carriages, 
each with two women and two men, drawn by six horses. Then came the 
Queen's state coach drawn by eight cream-colored animals with flowing manes 
and tails, attended by a yeoman at each wheel, a footman at each door. 

The elder James Gordon Bennett, who founded the New York Herald, 
writing of the occasion as an eye witness of democratic impartiality, says of the 
gathering and the ceremonies in Westminster Abbey : 

"I passed a number of policemen and officers in a zigzag direction under 



78 THE CORONATION OF VICTORIA. 

the galleries and cloisters of this famous building. Coming from the light it 
seemed so dark when I passed the great entrance that I could not find my 
way. One of the attendants gave me his arm, led me through a dark passage 
which took me to the ascending staircase leading to the Nightingale Gallery. 

"On emerging from darkness to light I was for a moment dazzled by the 
splendid coup d'oeil which the interior of this magnificent structure presented. 
It was a few minutes after 7 o'clock in the morning, and yet ever}'' seat, except 
those belonging to the Peers, the Peeresses and foreign Ministers, was crowded 
with the beauty and splendor of this mighty Kingdom. It was impossible to 
conceive any scene more truly gorgeous. 

"In a short time^ — that is to say, at 8, Peers and Peeresses began to enter. 
I got a seat contiguous tO' that portion of the northern transept which was 
devoted to the accommodation of the female nobility, and I was quite inter- 
ested in watching the appearance and looks and dress of each fair dame as she 
entered. They all appeared in a similar costume — in white dress, with a 
crimson robe ornamented with ermine. Each Peeress carried her coronet in 
her hand, and when she took her seat she put it in her lap or placed it before her. 
On the opposite side was the place for the Peers. 

"What struck me most on the approach of the Peeresses was the singular 
degree O'f personal beauty which, as a body of women, they generally possessed. 
I do' not think they reached so many as 300 or 400, as there were many seats 
vacant, but of such as were present I can safely say that I have never seen in 
one single collection so many beautiful, graceful and dignified women as they 
presented. They are generally over the ordinary stature of females, approach- 
ing the majestic in their height and appearance. Their forms are full, rounded 
well, and present finely developed busts of remarkable classic beauty. Few are 
thin, lean, or meager in appearance, many, on the contrary, rather inclining to 
embonpoint ; but in complexion, benignant expression of face, and graceful 
movements they are superior. Hereafter it must be admitted that the higher 
female ranks of England are a beautiful race, and, i>erhaps, on nO' other occa- 
sion has there been an opportunity to see this so superior as that of the corona- 
tion. 



THE CORONATION OF VICTORIA. 79 

"But of all the sights in the Abbey the entrance of the young Queen was 
the most beautiful and splendid. There she was, walking up the steps leading 
to the royal platform, where stood the holy St. Edward's chair, the throne, etc. 
She looked quite short in stature, but, nevertheless, she bore herself with much 
dignity. On her fair brow she wore a dazzling circlet of gold and precious 
stones. 

"Her crimson train, ten or twelve yards in length, was borne by eight 
young ladies of the highest rank. These eight train-bearers were tall and 
majestic, and also beautiful. Their headdresses were adorned with lofty white 
plumes. It was really quite interesting to see the little girl bearing herself so 
well. In that part of the building where I stood the ladies expressed a deep 
interest on her appearance. 'Poor thing, they will smother her!' 'Sweet 
little girl, they will kill her with grandeur !' 

"In truth, the accession of Victoria seems to have changed the nature of 
men and things in this land of sturdy liberty. The nation has gone back to the 
ancient days of tilt and tournament, and loyalty has become entwined with the 
sentiment of love. England never had before a young, delicate, rather pretty, 
rather sensible, chaste maiden for her sovereign. The populace, up to the 
highest ranks, seemed to consider her as a beautiful plaything, an elegant doll, 
an enchanting little idol, which creates in the bosom all the feeling naturally 
excited by youth and beauty. 

"There never was in the world such another scene as that presented in 
V/estminster Abbey. The highest ranks of a great empire — an empire on 
which the sun never sets — met in that place to express love and devotion to a 
weak young woman. It was altogether a different scene from that presented 
by the coronation of an old, ugly, gouty, grasping old rascal. ... i 

"The ceremony was a strange mixture of religious, theatrical, beautiful 
and disorderly proceedings. There were prayers at one moment and clap- 
ping of hands at the next; now a holy sermon, and then a noisy hurrah; 
now a reverent kneeling at the altar, and then a kissing the hand of a fair 
girl. . . . 

"On emerging into the light again, I found myself in another place, with 
the Queen sitting on her throne, ready to receive the homage of the Peers, 



80 THE CORONATION OF VICTORIA. 

close by. I was also' still nearer to the beautiful Peeresses and could dis- 
tinguish the maids of honor and the fair train-bearers quite plain. I never 
had before such sight of Her Majesty, and so I set myself to work to peruse 
her features with the deepest study and attention. I found that she was just 
to receive the crown on her head, and I had a full and perfect view of this 
sublime ceremony. 

"The Archbishop of Canterbury, a rather grim looking old fellow, pro- 
ceeded to the task. At one moment there was some difficulty, as I thought, 
in fixing it, but as soon as it was on and the signal given the Peeresses, each 
of them, with their own hand, placed the coronets on their heads — the 
Peers the same. Now rose the din, the noise, the shouts, the huzzas, and in 
a few seconds the deep roar of the artillery without, the roar of the people 
within. It was a singular scene." 

In administering the oath to the Queen the Archbishop addressed her : 

"Madam, is Your Majesty willing to take the oath?" 

"I am willing," answered she. 

"Will you solemnly promise and swear to govern the people of this 
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the dominions thereto be- 
longing, according tO' the statutes in Parliament agreed on, and the respective 
laws and customs of the same?" 

"I solemnly promise so to do," was her reply. 

"Will you, to the utmost of your power, cause law and justice in mercy 
to be extended in all your judgments?" 

"I will," was the answer. 

"Will you," pursued the Archbishop, "to the utmost of your power, main- 
tain the laws of God, the true profession of the Gospel and the Protestant 
reformed religion established by law? And will you maintain and preserve 
inviolable the settlement of the United Church of England and Ireland and 
the doctrine, worship, discipline, and government thereof, as by law estab- 
lished within England and Ireland and the territories thereto belonging? 
And will you preserve unto the Bishops and clergy of England and Ireland, 
and to the churches there committed to their charge, all such rights and 
privileges as by law do or shall apj^ertain to them, or any of them?" 





w 
w 

o 
w 

H 
W 

W 

H 
K 
O 



to 
O 

w 
J 
to 



w 
o 

w 

p^ 
o 

PO 

o 



THE QUEEN BECOMES A WIFE. 83 

"All this I promise to do," said Victoria, solemnly. 

After repeating the form of the oath-promises the Queen, attended by 
the train-bearers and assisted by the Lord Great Chamberlain, followed the 
sword of state to the altar, where, kneeling on the cushion placed on the steps 
and laying her right hand on the Bible, she took the coronation oath in the 
words : 

"The things which I have herebefore promised I will perform and keep, 
so help me God." 

Afterward she kissed the great Bible which had been carried in the altar 
procession and set her royal sign manual to a transcript of the oath. 

This was the beginning of a reign longer than ever had been accorded to 
an English sovereign, and of the woman who assumed it, even the harsh, 
cynical Carlyle, in a private letter to his brother, in 1838, wrote: 

"Going through the Green Park yesterday I saw her little Majesty taking 
her departure for Windsor. I had seen her another day at Hyde Park 
Corner coming in from the daily ride. She is decidedly a pretty-looking 
little Princess, health, clearness, graceful timidity looking* out from her 
young face, 'frail cockle on the black, bottomless deluges.' One could not 
help some interest in her, situated as mortal seldom was." 

THE QUEEN BECOMES A WIFE. 

Queen Victoria took the affairs of her court in hand at once. She was 
of a notably gracious disposition, but fortunately she knew how to frown 
and whom to frown upon. She paid her father's long-standing debts. Her 
preceptor, Dr. Davys, she made Bishop of Peterborough. She removed the 
royal residence and court to Windsor Castle, which has since become one of 
the grandest palaces on earth. 

The incident of paying her father's debts illustrates her character. He 
had borrowed of his friends, and the Duchess' mother had coached her in 
laying aside money, even while she was a child, with a view one day of paying 
these heavy obligations. Out of the royal income which fell to her she 
liquidated the last of these, which had been beyond the means of herself and 
mother. 



84 THE QUEEN BECOMES A WIFE. 

On the throne of England the young woman found disadvantages in 
spinsterhood. Her advisers suggested as much to her. Every Prince Im- 
perial in Europe was a more or less acknowledged suitor for her hand. 

It had been the wish of the Duchess of Kent that Victoria should marry 
her cousin, the handsome Francis Charles Augustus Albert Emanuel, second 
son of Ernest, Duke of Saxe-Coburg Saalfeld. But with her assumption of 
the throne all Europe became enamored of her. Some one has said of the 
situation : 

"The condition of susceptible young men was indeed tragic. Some shot 
themselves and some went mad all for love of the Queen. One gentleman 
of position was reduced to weeding the Round Pond in Kensington Gardens 
in the hope of obtaining a sight of her. Charles Dickens was one of the 
youths who had a severe attack of Queen fever; happily, he recovered." 

Regarding Prince Albert the mother of the future Queen seemed to 
have been disposed to furnish the two young people with opportunity to form 
their own impressions oi each other, when in 1836 she invited the Prince 
and his elder brother to visit Kensington Palace. It may be conjectured that 
the guardians of 1x)th the boy and the girl saw good reasons for a possible 
union if there should be mutual attraction, for there certainly were such 
reasons on both sides. Two years afterward King Leopold, Prince Albert's 
uncle, proceeded to call the Queen's attention to her cousin, but her answer 
showed no special interest in the subject. She brought forward the fact that 
they both were too young; also that the Prince needed more knowledge oi 
the English language, more experience, and more self-reliance. A letter 
from the Prince to a friend at that time showed that he considered the affair 
at an end. 

Meanwhile the situation in England showed an urgent necessity that the 
young Queen should have some one to trust intimately and tO' lean upon in 
the discharge of the duties whose weight and importance were crushing to 
one whose regard for duties was so conscientious. British politics also were 
entering a phase of embarrassing complications. 

At this stage King Leopold determined to bring his nephew and his niece 
together. If each could have opportunity to see in the other the rare excel- 



THE QUEEN BECOMES A WIFE. 85 

lencies that he saw in both they would fall in love. He sent the Prince and 
his brother on a cousinly visit to Windsor Castle. The three years since the 
Queen and the Prince had met wro-ught great changes in both, but especially 
in him. The shy and awkward boy had gained a frank and manly bearing. 

It was a gay and happy visit. The young Queen evidently was surprised 
into admiration at the beginning ; for she wrote King Leopold on the second 
day that Albert was "most amiable and unaffected — in short, very fascinat- 
ing." In a few days it was evident that the case was serious for both parties 
concerned. 

General Grey in his "Early Years of the Prince Consort," is brief on the 
subject, saying only that on October 15 "the Prince had been out hunting 
early with his brother, but returned at 12, and half an hour afterward obeyed 
the Queen's summons to her room, where he found her alone. After a few 
minutes' conversation on other subjects, the Queen told him why she had 
sent for him." 

On November 23 the Queen read a formal declaration to the Council of 
her proposed marriage. The day previous, her aunt, the Duchess of Glouces- 
ter, asked her if she was not nervous in the prospect of making this public 
announcement. 

The Queen replied : "Yes, but I did a much more trying thing a little 
while ago." 

"What was that?" 

"I proposed to Prince Albert." 

In the Queen's letter to her uncle, King Leopold, on the day of the 
betrothal, she speaks of her mortification at her cool reception of her uncle's 
suggestion a year before, and says of Albert : 

"He seems perfection, and I think I have the prospect of great happiness. 

. . I love him more than I can say, and I shall do everything in my 
power to make this sacrifice (for such, in my opinion, it is) as small 
as I can. He seems to have great tact, a necessary thing in his position. 
The^e last few days have passed like a dream to me, . . . but I do feel 
happy." 

The humility and the affection of this letter from the Queen are matched 



86 THE QUEEN BECOMES A WIFE. 

in a letter from Prince Albert the next day to his friend and preceptor, Baron 
Stockmar : 

"Victoria is so good and kind to me that I am often puzzled to believe 
that I should be the object of so much affection." 

The Privy Councilors were again called together in Buckingham Palace 
on November 23, 1839. It devolved upon the sovereign to announce to 
them her engagement to the Prince, and some one has written a pretty de- 
scription of the scene. There were eighty-three men in the chamber, and one 
of them wrote: 

"Her Majesty was handed in by the Lord Chamberlain, and, bowing to 
us all around, sat down, saying: 'Your Lordships (we are all Lords at the 
Council Board) will be seated.' She then unfolded a paper and read her 
declaration. 

"I cannot describe to you with what mixture of self-possession and 
feminine delicacy she read the paper. Her voice, which is naturally beautiful, 
was clear and untroubled, and her eye was bright and calm, neither bold nor 
downcast, but firm and soft. There was a blush on her cheek, which made 
her look both handsomer and more interesting, and certainly she did look as 
handsome and as interesting as any young lady I ever saw." 

For herself the Queen wrote : "The room was full, but I hardly knew 
who was there. Lord Melbourne I saw looking kindly at me with tears in 
his eyes, but he was not near me. I then read my short declaration. I felt 
my hands shake, but I did not make one mistake. I felt most happy and 
thankful when it was over." 

Storm followed the announcement. Parliament indulged in ribald jest- 
ing at the man, and to the last many of the English people never recovered 
from the disappointment. 

But the wedding took place in the royal chapel in St. James' Palace on 
February 10, 1840. The day was rainy and some of the splendors of the 
great pageant were destroyed. On her head Her Majesty wore a simple 
wreath of orange blossoms, and her magnificent veil did not cover her face, 
but hung down on each shoulder.- Her ornaments were a pair of large 



TEMPORARY UNPOPULARITY. 87 

diamond earrings, a diamond necklace, and the collar of the Order of the 
Garter. 

The chapel had been handsomely decorated for the ceremony and the 
whole of the floor was covered with rich gold and purple carpeting, having 
the Norman rose as its prominent figxire. To a flourish of trumpets and 
drums the bridegroom's procession passed along the colonnade. The Prince 
was received with considerable applause. 

The Queen was paler than her wont, and had an anxious air, but her 
answers were heard with distinctness by the multitude. On the return of the 
royal procession to Buckingham Palace the Queen sat hand in hand with the 
Prince, but the hands were clasped in such a way that the wedding ring 
could be distinctly seen. 

No one has ever doubted the affection that existed between the Queen 
and the Prince Consort. But on the part of the English people the criticism 
which he early foresaw was not lacking, and at times was sharpened by 
political suspicion. 

SHE LIVED DOWN TEMPORARY UNPOPULARITY. 

When Victoria ascended the throne the change of rulers naturally aroused 
much public interest, and for a time it looked as though the affection for a 
monarchy was about to be revived. 

Then came the Queen's marriage to Prince Albert, which was by no 
means popular. One has but to refer to the newspapers of that day to see 
that the whole of the revision of our form of government appeared to be 
imminent, yet within ten years the Queen lived down all that, and after the 
stormy episode of the Carlist movement of 1848 she entered upon such a fifty 
years of esteem and even affection as had never hitherto been accorded to a 
single individual by a whole nation. 

It is unnecessary to tell any intelligent man that the position of a King 
or Queen in England is a difficult one. Of power, in the ordinary sense of 
the word, there is none. The President of the United States has during his 
four years of office as much patronage and power as is given to a modern 
British monarch in the longest of reigns. 



88 TEMPORARY UNPOPULARITY. 

Nevertheless such privileges as are given to the King or Queen had 
been maintained without friction by the Queen intact, at a period of 
history when such legislation as the taxes on the fortunes of millionaires, 
the income tax, working compensation acts, and the forthcoming pensions 
for all individuals over sixty-five years of age, prove England, though a 
monarchy, the most socialistic country of the world. 

Amidst all of this strife and struggle, change and progress, the Queen 
retained every privilege she had inherited, and handed to her successor the 
office in exactly the same state as she received it in 1837. 

Hers had been a personal victory. Strength of will, coupled with much 
tact, great industry, and a remarkable memory, have been among the secrets 
of her success. Above all things has been a remarkable conscientiousness. 

There is no better instance of this latter quality than the fact that when 
at the age of 60 years she was proclaimed Empress of India she engaged the 
services of a Hindustanee tutor and taught herself the most difficult of 
languages. To the rest of us French or German at that age would have been 
difficult, and to become a good writer and speaker of Hindustanee is a record 
in itself. 

Then the intense affection for the Queen of the ordinary English house- 
hold can be realized by an American who remembers the interest displayed 
in that country in the doings at the White House during the Cleveland and 
Harrison administrations, when there were children there. 

You have read of the Queen's journeys, her visits to the poor, her 
thought, and her practical common sense in state craft, in household matters, 
and you will comprehend the nature of the blow that is falling upon every 
Englishman today. 

The Queen was, above all things, a mother, a housewife. She nursed 
her children herself and was devoted to them, while the houses of the nobility 
and plutocracy have been overrun by hired and professional nurses. 

The Queen was as much the mother of her children as any laborer's wife, 
and, despite the four hours of official work she had every day of her life, she 
knew all that was going on about her household, and was neatness and care- 
fulness itself. 



TEMPORARY UNPOPULARITY. 89 

A noted Englishman wrote some years before the Queen's death : 

I had the honor tO' issue some years ago a work entitled "Sixty Years a 
Queen." In the preparation of that book I had occasion to be at Windsor 
Castle. One in authority there told me quite casually that, starting out from 
her London palace on the day of the 1897 jubilee, the Queen noticed that 
some of the palace window blinds were crooked. She stopped the carriage 
and the procession and a message was dispatched to the housekeeper that 
they should be straightened. 

It was these domestic traits that have tended not a little to the Queen's 
place in every English home. 

Contrasted with the domestic simplicity of her life was the bravery she 
displayed on all public occasions. Within the last few months she has made 
public journeys through the streets of London. And at the times when the 
continental Anarchist was doing his worst she persisted in her journeys to 
France and Italy, despite the earnest advice of the newspapers and the remon- 
strances, it is said, of her Ministers. 

No criticism of any kind caused the Queen to desist from any purpose 
on which she was bent. 

There were times when her pathetic friendship for the French ex- Empress 
Eugenie was highly resented by some of the less gallant officials of the 
French republic, but the Queen was in no^ way affected by the expressions oi 
disapproval. She had known the Empress in the days of her beauty and pros- 
perity. She was true as steel at the time of Eugenie's humiliation. 

She was blamed for withdrawing herself from public life since the com- 
mencement of her widowhood, when it has been pointed out that her attend- 
ance at the opera or her leadership of society would have given an immense 
impetus to the trade of London, yet there are many who will agree that she 
is right to give herself to state and family affairs after the death of her hus- 
band, and truly no man was ever more sincerely mourned than was Prince 
Albert. 

Of late years the vast growth of the empire, the acquisition of new terri- 
tories, and the development of the old have enormously increased the matter 
of form that a British sovereign has to take care of each day. 



90 TENNYSON'S TRIBUTE. 

TENNYSON'S TRIBUTE TO THE QUEEN'S SORROW. 

In the dedication of the Idylls of the King to the memory of the lamented 
Prince Consort, written in 1862, Alfred Tennyson, Poet-Laureate, expressed 
the never-ending sympathy of the English people for their widowed Queen. 
These fine lines will be recalled to memory now that the end of her life has 

come : 

Break not, O woman's-heart, but still endure; 
Break not, for thou art Royal, but endure, 
Remembering all the beauty of that star 
Which shone so close beside Thee that ye made 
One light together, but has past and leaves 
The crown a lonely splendor. 

May all love, 
His love, unseen but felt, o'ershadow Thee, 
The love of all Thy sons encompass Thee, 
The love of all Thy daughters cherish Thee, 
The love of all Thy people comfort Thee, 
Till God's love sets Thee at his side again ! 

Queen Victoria never ceased to lament the death of her beloved husband. 

who was, in every respect, worthy the love and affection of sO' noble a v/oman. 

He was, from the time of their marriage to his untimely demise, her adviser, 

counsellor and devoted helpmeet. The widowed Queen never had heart for 

gayeties after he passed away, but mourned his loss to the day of her own 

death, 

SOME PATHETIC INCIDENTS, 

William IV. expired after midnight at Windsor Castle. The Archbishop 
of Canterbury and other high officials were in attendance. As soon as the 
"scepter had departed" with the last breath of the King the Archbishop made 
his way to Kensington Palace and requested an interview with the Princess 
Victoria, already, by the law of succession. Queen. She hastily attired her- 
self and met the venerable prelate in her ante-room, where she was informed 
of her succession to the throne. The girl of 18 was deeply agitated at the 
formidable words of the dignitary and could only say ; 

'T ask your prayers in my behalf." 



ENGLAND'S THRONE IS NEVER VACANT. 91 

The young Queen and the aged churchman then knelt together and 
invoked divine guidance. 

The Queen's first act of her reign was to call for pen and paper and indite 
a letter of condolence to the widow of William. S4ie directed the missive 
"To' the Queen of England." Her maid of honor in attendance, noticing 
the superscription, said : "Your Majesty, you are Queen of England." 

"Yes," replied Victoria, "but the widowed Queen is not to be reminded 
of the fact first from me." 

Queen Victoria personally supervised the education of her children in 
the homely English pursuits, as well as in polite learning. The royal children 
were all skilled in gardening and in housekeeping. On one of the royal 
estates they were given a house and grounds, and here the young Princesses 
might have been seen deep in the mysteries of pastry-making and cooking the 
vegetables from their own garden. 

The first public act of the Queen after the death of the Prince Consort 
was a visit to the military hospital at Netley, an institution in which the 
Prince had taken the greatest interest. In the first ward a Victoria Cross 
man from India v/as lying extremely ill in bed. The Queen sent for the 
officer in charge to relate the soldier's deeds and chance of recovery. This 
she continued in every ward she visited. 

ENGLAND'S THRONE IS NEVER VACANT. 

The theory of the English constitution is that the throne of Great Britain 
is never vacant. In other words, the sovereign never dies, the succession of 
an heir being instantaneous. Hence, as Debrett explains it, the ceremony of 
coronation is merely a solemn recognitio'n and confirmation of royal descent 
and the consequent right of accession to the throne, and is unnecessary for 
the security of the title to the crown. 

It is customary on the death of the sovereign for the Archbishop of Can- 
terbury and the Prime Minister to notify the heir apparent of his accession, 
though even this is technically superfluous. 

The notification to the people is made by proclamation through the Lord 
Mayors and the Lord Lieutenants of counties, etc. 



92 EVENTS AND DISCOVERIES. 

The proclamation issued when Queen Victoria succeeded to the throne 
read as follows : 

"Whereas, It has pleased Almighty God to call to his mercy our late 
Sovereign and Lord, King William IV., of blessed and glorious memory, by 
whose decease the Imperial crown of the United Kingdom of Great Britain 
and Ireland is solely rightfully come to the high and mighty Princess Alexan- 
drina Victoria, it is therefore here published and proclaimed that the high and 
mighty Princess Alexandrina Victoria is now, by the death O'f the late sov- 
ereign- of happy memory, become our only lawful and right liege lady 
Victoria, by the grace of God, Queen of the United Kingdom of Great 
Britain and Ireland, defender of the faith, to whom let all, therefore, acknowl- 
edge faith and constant obedience, with all hearty and humble affection, 
beseeching God, by whom Kings and Queens do reign, to bless the royal 
Princess Victoria with long and happy years to reign over us. God save the 
Queen." 

Formerly the death of the sovereign brought the existing government to 
an end. The Premier resigned and Parliament was immediately dissolved. A 
general election was ordered and the sovereign requested the Ministers to 
retain their portfolios pending the result of the election. The coronation was 
usually deferred for some months. Queen Victoria was crowned a year and 
some days after her accession. 

The succession of the new Prince of Wales to that title is quite different. 
When the present Prince of Wales became King the title merged in that of 
sovereign. The King may confer it by letters patent upon his son, if he sees 
fit. The sovereign's eldest son becomes the Duke of Cornwall, automatically 
as it were, and is entitled to the revenues of that duchy, which now amount 
to £50,000 per annum, for the benefit of the Prince of Wales. 

EVENTS AND DISCOVERIES DURING HER REIGN. 

Among the many wonderful events and discoveries since Queen Victoria 
ascended the throne, in 1837, and which have changed the face of civilization, 
the following are particularly important : 

Discovery of photography, in 1839. 



EVENTS AND DISCOVERIES. 93 

Enunciation of the Monroe Doctrine. 

Civil war in the United States, 1861-65. 

Emancipation of slaves under white men throughout the world. 

Liberation of 40,000,000 Russian serfs by Alexander II. 

Formation of the German Empire by Count von Bismarck. 

Crushing of Spain's colonial power by the United States. 

Establishment of present French Republic. 

Wooden sailing vessels superseded by iron steam vessels through the 

genius of Ericsson, the inventor of the Monitor. 

Japan comes to the front as a world power. 

Laying of the Atlantic cable. 

Building of the Suez Canal. 

Mount Cenis and St. Gothard tunnels built. 

Discovery of gold in California, 1849. i 

The modern railroad evolved. 

Discovery of anaesthetics in 1844. 

Science of bacteriology, or germ theory. 

Darwin's theory of evolution. 

Discovery of the planet Neptune. 

Roentgen's discovery of the X-ray. 

> 
Discovery of the Northwest passage. 

# Australia opened up to civilization. 

Africa opened up by the discoveries of Burton, Speke, Livingstone and 
Stanley. 

Pasteur's discovery of a treatment for hydrophobia, 1884. 

Peace conference at The Hague, 1899. % % 

Geneva convention, 1864, established the Red Cross Society. 

Death of "Chinese" Gordon. 

General Lord Kitchener conquered the rebel Arabs and estabHshed Eng- 
land's sovereignty in Egypt. 

Chinese-Japanese war. 

England's war with Afghanistan, 1840.. 

Victoria proclaimed Empress of India, , 



j)4 EVENTS AND DISCOVERIES. 

1880 first year of peace in Queen Victoria's reign. 

Zulu war, 1879. 

Transvaal war, 1881. 

Greco-Turkish war, 1897. 

War in South Africa, 1900-1901. 

Russo-Turkish war, 1853-55. 

Franco-Prussian war, 1870. 

Telegraphy invented by Samuel F. B. Morse. 

Invention of typewriters revolutionized business methods. 

Robert Hoe invents the rotary printing press. 

Edison invents the electric light and phonograph. 

Alexander Graham Bell invents the telephone. 

Invention of the sewing machine. 

Automobiles revolutionize the transportation world. 

Invention of wireless telegraphy. 

Submarine vessels made practical. 

Invention of smokeless powder. 

Discovery of petroleum. 

Use of armor plate for war vessels. 

Establishment of life-saving service. 



1 • 



CHAPTER II. 

Last Illness of the Queen and Empress — Grief of the People of England and the 
Colonies — Sorrow General Throughout the Entire Civilized World — Scenes 
In and Around Osborne House, in London, and Elsewhere — Fortune Left by 
the Departed Monarch. 

GATHERED at the bedside (or in waiting in the adjoining apartments) 
of the dying Queen and Empress at Osborne House, Isle of Wight, 
on that fateful evening of the 22d of January, 1901, were the Prince 
of Wales (soon to^ be the successor of his mother as Edward VII.), the Princess 
of Wales (now Queen Alexandra), the Duke of York (heir apparent tO' the 
throne), the Duchess of York (prospective Queen of England), the Emperor 
of Germany (Queen Victoria's grandson, the son of her eldest daughter 
Victoria, Princess Royal), the Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyle (daughter 
of Queen Victoria), the Duke of Connaught (son of Queen Victoria), the 
Duchess of Connaught, the Princess Beatrice of Battenberg (her youngest 
daugher), the Duchess of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the Duke of Cambridge 
(cousin to the Queen), the Princesses Victoria and Maud of Wales, King 
Leopold of Belgium, one of Queen Victoria's oldest friends, the Archbishop 
of Canterbury, the Bishop of Winchester, Home Secretary C. T. Ritchie 
^hose duty it was to certify to the death of the Sovereign, as well the birth of 
prospective heirs to the throne), A. J. Balfour, First Lord of the Treasury, 
Mr. Theed, a sculptor, who' made the death mask, and many relatives whose 
names were not mentioned. 

The new King's announcement of his mdiber's death was by means of a 
telegram to the Lord Mayor of London, as follows : 

"Osborne, 6:45 p. m. — My beloved mother has just passed away, sur- 
rounded by her children and grandchildren. Albert Edward." 

The bulletin of the royal physicians was : 

"Osborne House, Isle of Wight, Jan. 22, 6:45 p. m. — Her Majesty the 

95 



96 LAST ILLNESS OF THE QUEEN. 

Queen breathed her last at 6:30 p. m., surrounded by her children and grand- 
children. 

"James Reid, 

"R. Douglas Powell, 

"Thomas Barlow." 

As the Queen lay dying, the Bishop of Winchester and the Rector of Whip- 
pingham read prayers for those in extremis. Happily the Queen was able to 
recognize those around her. They came to her bedside, but the physicians 
had warned them against attempts to speak to her. Naturally, the family, 
while recognizing the claim for public information, insisted that the details 
of the events around the deathbed should be sacred and imposed the strictest 
secrecy on the whole household. 

Lord Clarendon (the Lord Chamberlain) was at Osborne House, because 
the arrangements for the succession to the throne were in his hands. 

The Queen bade farewell, in a feeble monosyllable, to her family assembled 
at her bedside at midday. She first recognized the Prince of Wales, to whom 
she spoke a few words of great moment; then Emperor William and the 
others present filed past and heard a whispered good-by. 

King Christian of Denmark, father of the Princess of Wales (Queen 
Alexandra), was with difficulty dissuaded from making the journey from 
Copenhagen to the Isle of Wight, who, notwithstanding his advanced age, 
was anxious to be near his daughter at the supreme moment which made her 
the consort of the King of England, the mightiest monarchy on earth. 

It was positively affirmed by Drs. Reid, Powell and Barlow, the physicians 
in attendance, that Her Majesty's critical condition was due to no specific 
disease. It was a general physical collapse, so complete that all the functions 
of the body ceased except as maintained by artificial means. This was true 
even to the extent of respiration, which was maintained by the use of oxygen. 

In other words, the Queen died of old age and exhaustion. Her vital 
forces, had she been an ordinary patient, would not have survived such a 
length of time, for often it seemed, some days before her death, that her 
repeated sinking spells and unconsciousness would merge into the last sleep. 

Her Majesty lay helpless and almost speechless in her bed in Osborne 
House surrounded by every comfort. 



LAST ILLNESS OF THE QUEEN. ^ 97 

Fruits, flowers, ice, and all the accessories of modern medicine were at 
hand. Osborne House is buried amidst a gloomy park of firs. The wind came 
up from the channel and surged through the trees like a death dirge. A mile 
away stands the lodge. Beyond its portals none but the household could pass. 
On them, without the sovereign's knowledge, were posted bulletins announc- 
ing her condition. 

The Queen saw Emperor William of Germany (her grandson) while 
under the influence of a strong restorative, and was quite able to recognize 
him. The effects of this powerful stimulant remained for several hours. 

The details of the interview, naturally, were withheld, the only statement 
concerning it being that the Queen was partially conscious while her imperial 
grandson was beside her. 

He was greatly attached to Queen Victoria, who for her part entertained 
a warmer affection for him than for any of her other grandchildren, and was 
accustomed to write and speak tO' him in a way no one else ever dared. The 
Queen nicknamed him "Willful Willie," and their relations always remained 
the most affectionate. The Queen expressed a wish to see the Emperor, who 
attended at her bedside. When the Queen had uttered a few feeble words the 
Emperor withdrew, visibly moved. 

The chamber in which the Queen died has a southern aspect facing inland, 
with a bright prospect of evergreen plantation and bright hued shrubs. The 
Queen's bed is an elegant, somewhat old-fashioned mahogany one, which 
accompanied her everywhere, while several pictures, her private escritoire, 
bedroom table, and wheel chair also traveled with her. As all of her bed- 
rooms are paneled with pale green brocade all closely resemble each other. 

The pictures she never parted with are a water color and miniature por- 
traits of the Prince Consort, Princess Alice, the Duke of Saxe-Coburg, Em- 
press Eugenie (widow of Napoleon HI. of France), Lord Beaconsfield, and 
some family groups, including those of the Duke of York's children. The 
furniture, appointments and decorations of her private rooms are of the finest 
Louis Seize, and until quite recently she always read by light from Colza 
lamps, which some thirty years agO' replaced the wax candles, which were 
exclusively used on the royal dinner table. 



98 LAST ILLNESS OF THE QUEEN. 

Her bedroom is adjoined by two private sitting-rooms, with a spacious 
corridor between, in which she often took walking exercise, leaning on the 
arm of an Indian attendant, when the weather was too- impropitious to venture 
out. 

Water beds were provided for the purpose of aiding to maintain the vital- 
ity of the Queen. These water beds are rubber mattresses filled with water at 
the desired temperature. These mattresses were placed on twO' bedsteads 
placed side by side in the center of the room, and each was covered with several 
sheets. The royal and imperial patient was lifted carefully fron] one oi these 
to the other whenever the temperature of either mattress sank too low. Doors 
and windows were kept carefully closed in order tO' preserve the virtue of the 
artificial atmosphere. Oxygen was being constantly released in the room from 
cylinders. 

The number of visitors who called at the lodge gates to sign their names in 
the Queen's visitors' book during Her Majesty's illness numbered thousands, 
and they came from all parts of England. The attitude of all the authorities 
toward the press was one of absolute reserve, in accordance with the royal 
orders. The instructions dated back more than six weeks, when the sad 
crisis was first foreseen. 

The strictest orders were given out at Windsor Castle early in December 
to conceal or deny the fact that the Queen was failing in health. The royal 
wish was completely realized, practically no knowledge of the truth getting out 
until the eve of the Queen's sudden collapse on Saturday, January 12th. On 
the day previous to that it was thought that the Queen would live a month, 
inasmuch as there had been no cerebral symptoms beyond mental lassitude and 
a constant tendency to sleep. The stomach on some days failed to properly 
assimilate food, and the resulting weakness was the principal cause of the 
formation of the blood clot on the brain, which was admitted for the first time 
in the bulletin issued on Monday, January 14th. 

The announcement of the arrival of the Emperor William, of Germany, at 
Osborne House gave rise to an extraordinary rumor. It had been frequently 
imputed to the Kaiser that he, as the eldest son of the Queen's eldest child, 
regarded himself as the rightful successor to the British throne, and it was 



'».-. 



A 




Ltft 



LAST ILLNESS OF THE QUEEN. 101 

apparently surmised in some quarters that his journey to Osborne had some 
relation to that imaginary claim. The Emperor never paid any attention to 
the ridiculous story, and its authorship was never known. 

The Kaiser's visit tO' Osborne House caused profound gratification, as 
demonstrating his personal good-will and making it plain to the hostile powers 
that Great Britain was not isolated at that grave juncture of her fortunes. 

An apprehension unquestionably existed in court and diplomatic circles 
that the death of the Queen, who was held in such a universal reverence and 
esteem, and whose moral weight for European peace was incalculable, might 
serve the purposes of these powers led by France, whose aim was a coalition 
against England. The Kaiser's presence, which so much impressed continen- 
tal feeling, was really an act of characteristic impulsiveness, and, like most of 
his impulses, good in the main. 

There was an all-pervading sense of gloom throughout London, Thou- 
sands of people silently crowded around Buckingham Palace and Marl- 
borough House waiting for bulletins from Osborne. 

Piccadilly, Pall Mall, and Victoria street were thronged with pedestrians 
and private carriages, all making for a point where the latest authentic news 
could be obtained. Such a crowd was never seen in the West End save in the 
height of the season. 

The dense crowd which always surrounds the Mansion House when news 
of national importance is expected was there, but the people behaved in a man- 
ner quite foreign to that which usually characterizes a Mansion House crowd. 
There was nO' hustling and no noise. 

In all parts of England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland the sorrow was 
genuine and sincere; and the same can be said with truth of the British 
Colonies and dependencies throughout the world. Canada, Australia, India, 
Egypt, New Zealand, Tasmania — wherever the English flag floats — the grief 
was unalloyed 

Without exception, the rulers of the nations of the earth sent expressions 
of sympathy for the members of the royal family and the people of the British' 
Empire in the great loss they had sustained. The press of every country could 
not say too much in extolling the character of the late sovereign as a woman 



102 LAST ILLNESS OF THE QUEEN. 

and a ruler. The national law-making bodies all over the world adopted reso- 
lutions of respect. 

Never in her history has England mourned an occupant of the throne as 
was the case after the death of Victo^-ia. While her sterling worth was appre- 
ciated to a wonderful extent during her life, it was much more so after her 
demise. How often the good Queen interposed between disputing nations, 
and by means of her personal influence, or other influence she brought to bear, 
prevented hostilities, none will ever know. She loved peace for the sake of 
humanity and the suffering it prevented, and her advice was often heeded by 
her Ministers, although she did not intrude in affairs of policy where such 
action would not be received in a kindly spirit. 

The physicians in attendance upon the late Queen and Empress during her 
last illness were most able men in their profession. 

Sir Richard Douglas Powell, the head of the staff of physicians who were 
in the sick-room of the late Queen, had been physician extraordinary to Her 
Majesty since 1887. He was one of the most prominent physicians in London 
and a member of all the important medical societies in the Kingdom. He 
was made a Baronet in 1897. He acted as consulting physician to several 
hospitals and wrote several medical text books. 

Sir James Reid, whose name was one of those signed at the bottom of the 
bulletins issued from the time Queen Victoria's illness began, had been resi- 
dent physician to the Queen for more than twenty years. He accompanied the 
royal court on all its travels and spent practically all his adult life, since he 
took his medical degree, in constant attendance upon Her Majesty. His fam- 
ily was Scotch. He was 50 years old when the Queen died, and came from a 
medical family. He was selected for the position he so long held by Sir 
William Jenner, who was, until his death, physician extraordinary to the 
Queen. Sir James Reid, who was made a Knight in 1898, drew a salary of 
$7,500 from the Crown, and in addition was furnished with board and lodg- 
ings in whatever palace the Queen occupied. He had also the use of horses and 
carriages. He was married in 1899 to the Hon. Susan Baring, sister of Lord 
Revelstoke. 

Sir James aiways had more than a trace of the stubborn Scotch pride and 



LAST ILLNESS OF THE QUEEN. 103 

obstinacy, and upon one occasion left his royal mistress rather than stand some 
of her criticisms. In addition to his constant attendance upon the Queen he 
also acted as physician to the other members of the royal household. He was 
decorated several times by the Queen, and several foreign sovereigns as well. 

There was a faint gleam of hope among the watchers at the bedside of the 
aged Queen on the night of January 21st, Her Majesty having shown a dis- 
position toward a revival of strength, but it was not more than a momentary 
return of the all but exhausted vitality. The sands of life were fast running 
out, and on the morning of January 22d it was plainly evident that Victoria's 
liours were numbered. The immediate members of the royal family were 
called in, and grouped around the death-bed to await the inevitable. 

The Queen was conscious, but knew little of the anxiety and solicitude of 
her loved ones. 

The Prince of Wales, forgetful of his Kingly dignity, for he was King 
Edward VH. the moment the breath of life left his mother's body, appeared 
to be half-dazed, and the Duke of York's eyes were red, while the Duchess of 
Connaught did not cease crying. It was indeed a sad and tearful scene. 

Inside the palace everyone was overcome with emotion at that supreme 
moment when the sovereign ruler of the mightiest of the world's Empires 
departed from this earth to appear before the throne of the Great Ruler of all. 
A feeling of wondrous awe took possession of all. 

Among the most sincere of the mourners at the bedside of the dead Queen 
and Empress was the Emperor of Germany, her grandson. He made not the 
slightest attempt to control his emotion, but gave full vent to his grief. 

"I cannot realize that she is dead," said he. 

Outside of Osborne House it was pathetic, indeed, to observe the reluctance, 
which amounted to obstinacy, with which the enormous throng received the 
painful news. In fact, they would not believe the Queen was dead. It was an 
impossibility for the average Englishman to believe that the Queen was 
mortal. 

She had outlived more than two generations, and the great majority of her 
subjects now living were born after she had ascended the throne. It appeared 
to them as though Queen Victoria could not die. 



104 THE MOTHER OF HER PEOPLE. 

She had seen, during her long reign, the map of the world change ; king- 
doms and empires arose, flourished, lived their little day and disappeared; 
monarchs, their heirs and heirs of their heirs, ruled and were gathered to 
their fathers; nations which, at the beginning of her reign, were inconse- 
quential, rose to be among the most powerful on earth ; her dominions during 
her rule were extended to every continent; millions of new subjects acknowl- 
edged her sway, and when at last, enfeebled and worn out, older by more than 
a decade, the allotted three-score and ten, she quietly sank to her rest, beloved 
of her people and genuinely regretted throughout the civilized world. 

During her reign she saw the results of the administrations of ten pre- 
miers; she outlived seventeen Presidents of the United States; another 
Napoleon had seized the reins of power in France and gone down, like his 
great uncle, amid disaster and defeat; she saw the English banner planted 
amid the wilds of Africa ; saw the dark continent opened to civilization and 
witnessed the breaking of the barriers which, for thousands of years, had 
separated the teeming millions of China from the active, busy, progressive 
Western world. 

THE MOTHER OF HER PEOPLE. 

Queen Victoria was the mother of her people. She stood to them as the 
head of the great English family. She was looked upon as a being who com- 
bined attributes alike sacred and intensely human. The Queen was a wife and 
mother whose qualities were loved and envied by other English mothers. She 
led a domestic home life such as appealed to the nation. 

It was not until she was twelve years old that the Princess Victoria was 
permitted to know the high destiny reserved for her, and even then the 
knowledge came in an almost accidental manner. February 25, 183 1, when 
not quite twelve years of age, she attended her first drawing-room. 

"Lady Jersey," writes the amusing Mr. Greville, "made a scene with 
Lord Durham. She got up in a corner of the room and said : 

" 'Lord Durham, I hear that you have said things about me which are 
not true, and 1 desire that you will call upon me to-morrow with a witness to 



THE MOTHER OF HER PEOPLE. 105 

hpar my positive denial, and I hope that you will not repeat such things 
about me.' 

"She was in a fury and he in a still greater. He muttered that he would 
never set foot in her house again, which she did not fear, and after delivering 
herself of her speech, she flounced back again into her seat, mightily proud 
of her exploit. 

"It arose out of her saying that he should make Lady Durham demand an 
audience of the Queen to contradict the things which Lady Jersey said of her, 
and to other Whig allies." 

These were days in which the party spirit ran high, and penetrated the 
whole fabric of society in England. Within two or three years of this time 
Princess Victoria had taken her place in that society as the heiress to the 
English throne. 

In September, 1835, Her Royal Highness was the guest of the Duke of 
Rutland, at Belvoir. While there she was seen once more of the ubiquitous 
and all observant Mr. Greville. 

A few days after visiting the home of the Manners she visited the Marquis 
of Exeter at Burleigh. 

There was one person whom King William detested more even than his 
ministers— the mother of Victoria, the Duchess of Kent, who had not been 
sparing in her criticisms on the reception she had met from the royal family 
in England. 

The Duchess had applied for a suite of ap{i.rtments for her own use in 
Kensington palace, and had been refused by the King. She appropriated the 
rooms, knowing the denial. The King informed her publicly that he neither 
understood nor would endure conduct so disrespectful to him. 

This, though said loudly and publicly, was only the muttering of a storm 
which broke next day. It was the royal birthday, and the King had invited 
a hundred people to dinner. 

When replying to the speech in which his health had been proposed the 
King burst forth in a bitter tirade against the Duchess. 

"I trust in God," he exclaimed, "that I may have the satisfaction oi leaving 
the royal authority on my death to the personal exercise of that young lady," 



106 THE QUEEN'S PRIVATE FORTUNE. 

pointing to the Princess, "the heiress presumptive to the crown, and not in 
the hands of a person now near me, who is surrounded by evil advisers." 

One day, during her first visit to the royal lodge, Windsor Park, King 
William entered the drawing room holding Victoria by the hand. The band 
was playing in an adjoining conservatory. 

"Now, Victoria," said His Majesty, "the band is in the next room, and 
shall play any tune you please. What shall it be next?" 

"Oh, Uncle King," quickly replied the Princess, "I should like 'God Save 
the King.' " 

Another time His Majesty asked her what she had enjoyed most during 
her stay in Windsor. 

"The drive I took with you. Uncle King," was the answer. 

THE QUEEN'S PRIVATE FORTUNE. 

Queen Victoria's private fortune was estimated at from $25,000,000 to 
$30,000,000. Her financial adviser was Lord Cross. He and Lord Rowton 
were the only men living who knew the contents of the royal will, and Lord 
Cross was the only person who had at the time of her death full knowledge 
of the Queen's fortune. 

Even the Prince of Wales was in ignorance of the provisions of his 
mother's will, although he was the largest beneficiary under it. 

The position of financial adviser to the Queen was not an official one. 
Lord Cross was a member of the Cabinet, being Lord Privy Seal. He was 
about seventy-five years old when the Queen died, and had had charge of the 
Queen's private property a quarter of a century. 

Unlike the majority of the rulers who preceded her on the throne of 
England, Victoria was of a thrifty nature. That she was unusually prudent 
was shown at the time of her husband's death, when she did not increase the 
public treasure by paying a legacy tax, although the Prince Consort left a 
large fortune. His will never was probated. 

The nation settled the debts of her royal uncles, George IV. and William 
IV., but after her accession the Queen was prompt in paying the obligations 






THE QUEEN'S PRIVATE FORTUNE. 107 

of her father, the Duke of Kent, who died while his affairs were greatly 
involved. Besides this, each of her daughters and some of her granddaugh- 
ters received dowries of $200,000, and the Prince of Wales sometimes was 
extricated from annoying financial troubles by his mother. There were no 
other heavy withdrawals from the Queen's purse, however. She made other 
uses of the money supposed to be available for the purpose of maintaining 
royal appearances. As she had received since 1837 a civil list amounting to 
close upon $3,000,000 a year it may be seen that her wealth accumulated until 
it is of vast proportions. Three hundred thousand dollars per annum was 
devoted to what is called the Queen's privy purse and constituted her pocket 
money, of which no account was ever asked. Besides this, she had at her 
disposal the net revenues of the Duchy of Lancaster, which amounted on an 
average to $300,000 a year more. 

From this it will be seen that after having all the expenses of every 
conceivable character, down to her charities and servants' wages, defrayed 
out of the civil list, she had a sum of at least $600,000 a year to dispose of as 
she pleased, and which she is known to have set aside. This in itself, when 
added up, represented a minimum of $36,000,000, and, when it is remembered 
that the revenues of the Duchy of Lancaster are all the time increasing, the 
net revenue for the year 1900 being not less than £90,000, or $450,000, com- 
pared with £60,000, or $300,000, ten years before, and that, moreover, the 
Queen's savings have been most judiciously invested, for the most part in 
land which has increased almost tenfold in value during the last half-century, 
it is no exaggeration to estimate the fortune left by Her Majesty from these 
sources alone as in the neighborhood of $25,000,000. 

In addition to valuable continental property, she owned three estates in 
the United Kingdom. They are Balmoral, in Aberdeenshire, Scotland; 
Osborne House, Isle of Wight, Hampshire, and Charlemont, Surrey. They 
embrace 5,561 acres, with a rental value a year of $27,805. At twenty years' 
purchase that would be $556,100. In fact, they are worth double that amount. 
The Queen alsO' possessed property at Coburg, and the Princess Hohenlohe 
left her the Villa Hohenlohe, at Baden, one of the best and most valuable 
residences in the place. As to personal property, there was the bequest of a 



108 QUEEN HAD A MIND OF HER OWN. 

quarter of a million left to her by Sir James Camden Neild. This will was 
proved in 1852, and at the compound interest upon which it has been nurtured 
the bequest must now have reached a magnificent value. 

The Queen also made extensive real estate investments in New York. 

CONTENTS OF WILL NOT MADE PUBLIC. 

The Queen's will was opened January 25th for a preliminary inspection 
in order tO' follow the instructions it might contain concerning her funeral. 

The provisions of the will were never known, although it was believed 
that she bequeathed the greater part of her fortune to her youngest daughter, 
Beatrice, the widow of Prince Henry of Battenberg. She was given Osborne 
House. The Duke of Connaught was bequeathed Balmoral, the Queen's estate 
in Scotland. 

The Queen's life was heavily insured not only by insurance companies, 
but by hundreds of private persons as a speculation. Many shopkeepers were 
in the habit of insuring the Queen's life at the beginning of the social season 
in order to recoup themselves in case of her death. 

Others who insured the Queen's life were dependent in different ways 
on the privy purse, payment from which ceased, the King not seeing fit to 
renew it. There were also many among the poorer classes who insured the 
Queen's life through benefit societies as a speculation. 

SHE HAD A MIND OF HER OWN. 

The Queen had a will of her own. 

The matter in which the Queen so early "put down her foot" occurred 
in 1839, was known as the bedchamber affair, and at this time of day reads 
very much like a comedy of high life. Sir Robert Peel, in consultation with 
Her Majesty in regard to the formation of a conservative Ministry, noticed 
that the wife of the recent Lord Lieutenant and the sister of the Secretary 
of Ireland (both Whigs) were the ladies in closest attendance on Her 
Majesty. 

Peel might have secured the dismissal of these if the matter had been 



QUEEN HAD A MIND OF HER OWN. 109 

properly represented. But a misunderstanding arose, and the Queen was 
somewhat under the impression that Peel wished the retirement of all her 
familiar attendants and associates. 

Her reply was that she could not "consent to a course which she conceives 
to be contrary to usage and is repugnant to her feelings." It was a storm in 
a political teapot. The language in which the leaders of parties expressed 
their views was, considering the occasion, almost ludicrous. Peel, on the 
one hand, and Melbourne on the other, persisted in regarding the matter as 
a grave constitutional problem, while the Irish leaders, in flights of Celtic 
imagination, sought to make political capital out of it. In pathetic vein 
O'Connell called on heaven tO' bless "the young creature — ^that creature of 
only nineteen, as pure as she is exalted" — who had consulted the dictates of 
her heart in refusing to part with her ladies-in-waiting. 

"Those excellent women who had been so long attached to her, who had 
nursed and tended to her wants in her childhood, who had watched over her 
in her sickness, whose eyes beamed with delight as they saw her increasing 
daily in beauty and in loveliness — when they were threatened tO' be forced 
away from her — her heart told her that she could as well part with that heart 
itself as with those whom it held so dear." 







CHAPTER 111. 

Belief That the last Words Spoken by the Expiring Queen-Mother Were "My 
Son," Addressed to the Prince of Wales — The Latter and the German 
Emperor Much Affected — Died on the Anniversary of Her Father's Demise 
— January Fatal Month for English Royalty. 

IT IS believed that the last words spoken by Her Majesty, Queen Victoria, 
were "My son." 

Near her couch stood the son so soon to take up the crown and scepter 
she was laying down. A short time before, his royal mother had recognized 
and spoken to him. 

Her words are as a sealed book, but it was said on high authority that 
they were of vast moment and of the utmost importance. 

Then, when the end came, when the great Queen had almost passed the. 
border line, from her almost lifeless lips came to the watchers the words 
"My son." 

They were tenderly spoken and in them the man so soon to be the fore- 
most figure in the world heard the blessing that his royal mother was bestow- 
ing upon him with her latest breath. 

The Queen died as she wished, in the quietude of the country, with all 
her loved ones around her. The Duke of Argyll, the Duchess of York and 
the children of the Duke of Connaught reached the house half an hour before 
the end. 

It was feared the Queen was dying at 9 o clock in the morning and car- 
riages were sent to Osborne cottage and rectory to bring all the princes, 
princesses, and the bishop of Winchester to the bedside. It seemed very, 
very near the end. It was so near they feared they could not arrive in time. 

But when things seemed at the worst the Queen, in one of the rallies due 
to her wonderful constitution, opened her eyes and recognized the Prince of 
Wales, the Princess and the Kaiser, and asked to see one of her faithful ser- 
vants, a member of the household. He hastened to the room, but before he 

got there the Queen had passed into a fitful sleep. 

110 



DIED ON ANNIVERSARY OF FATHER'S DEATH. Ill 

The physicians, however, could give no hope. Nobody left the house. 
The sands were slowly trickling out and nobody could say at what moment 
they would be exhausted. 

Four o'clock marked the beginning of the end. Again the family was 
summoned. This time the relapse had no following rally. The Queen died 
like the setting of the sun ! 

DIED ON ANNIVERSARY OF HER FATHER'S DEATH. 

The death of Queen Victoria occurred upon the anniversary of the demise 
of her father, the Duke of Kent. 

The end of this career, never equaled by any other woman in the world's 
history, came quietly. This most respected of all women, living or dead, 
lay in a great four-posted bed and made a shrunken atom whose aged face 
and figure were a cruel mockery of the fair girl who in 1837 began to rule 
over England. 

With bowed heads the imperious ruler of the German Empire and the 
man who was now King of England, the woman who succeeded to the 
title of Queen, the Princes and Princesses, and those of less than royal desig- 
nation listened to the bishop's ceaseless prayer. 

Six o'clock passed. The bishop continued his intercession. One of the 
younger children asked a question in shrill, childish treble and was immedi- 
ately silenced. The women of this royal family sobbed faintly and the men 
shuffled uneasily. 

At exactly 6:30 o'clock Sir James Reid held up his hand, and the people 
in the room knew that England had lost her Queen. The bishop pro- 
nounced the benediction. 

The Queen passed away quite peacefully. She suffered no pain. 

Those who were now mourners went to their rooms. A few minutes 
later the inevitable element of materialism stepped into this pathetic chapter 
of international history, for the court ladies went busily to work ordering 
their mourning from London. 

The wheels of the world were jarred when the announcement came, but 
in this palace at Osborne everything pursued the usual course. Down in 



112 HOW NEWS WAS RECEIVED IN LONDON. 

the kitchen they were cooking a huge dinner for an assemblage the like of 
which has seldom been known in England, and the dinner preparations pro- 
ceeded just as if nothing had happened. 

The Prince of Wales — at that very moment the King of England — was 
much affected when the doctors informed him his mother had breathed her 
last. The scene was most aififecting, one almost beyond the power of words. 

Deeply affected himself, the German Emperor did his best to administer 
comfort to his sorrow-stricken uncle, whose new dignity he was one of the 
first, if not the very first, to acknowledge. 

HOW THE NEWS WAS RECEIVED IN LONDON. 

Like wildfire the news spread throughout London, the metropolis of the 
world. All the West End theaters and the music halls at once closed their 
doors, and church bells began to toll. Everything betokened the nation's 

sorrow. 

Parliament, which had been prorogued until February 14, met the follow- 
ing day, at 3 o'clock, to reswear the members and pass a resolution of con- 
dolence with the members of the royal family and congratulation on the 
accession to the throne of the new monarch. 

The demise of the monarch is the only contingency upon which Parlia- 
ment is required to meet without a summons in the usual form. In 1837, 
when William IV. died between 3 and 4 a. m. on June 20, Parliament met at 
I p. m. the same day, 

January has been a fateful month in the life of the English royal family. 
It is a singular coincidence that Queen Victoria passed away on the eighty- 
first anniversary of the death of her father, the Duke of Kent, which event 
occurred just six days before the death of his father, George III., in 1820. 

It was on January 20, 1896, that Prince Henry of Battenberg passed 
away, and it was alsg in January that the Duke of Clarence, the direct heir 
to the throne in the second generation, came to his untimely end. 

Late in the afternoon came a warning to the people of London that the 
Queen was slowly sinking. Then there was naught but waiting for the 



HOW NEWS WAS RECEIVED IN LONDON. 113 

end. The public suspense remained unchanged, and for four days it had 
been accompanied by a sense of the inevitableness of the end. 

It was this feeHng of utter hopelessness that induced something like 
apathy on the part of the masses on the streets and the classes in their draw- 
ing-rooms and club-houses. They had loved and honored the Queen, but 
had not been deceived by illusive hopes, and with one consent busied them- 
selves with preparations and forecasts for a new reign. 

The Cabinet Ministers had been looking up precedents and finding out 
what they should do in certain contingencies. Everyone, from the Arch- 
bishop of Canterbury to Speaker Gully, of the House of Commons, and from 
the Lord Chancellor to the Lord Chamberlain, had obtained his cue and 
studied his part for the opening scenes of the new reign. 

The Prime Minister had arranged for special trains for a meeting of the 
privy council at short notice at Osborne, and the Speaker had provided for 
almost automatic action, by which Parliament could assemble with the least 
possible delay. 

The diplomatists were prepared to call at Marlborough House or Buck- 
ingham Palace .and inscribe their names on the visitors' book, and the 
ambassadors had their messages of condolence in mind. 

As for the world of fashion, it had already suspended all engagements, 
and was preparing for a long season of mourning by ordering in advance 
changes in costumes and in the liveries of servants. 

The opening of the new reign involved many changes in social England. 
The King resided at Windsor during the early months of his reign, and the 
Duke of York occupied Sandringham, but ultimately their chief residences 
were Buckingham Palace and Marlborough House. All royal functions were 
suspended during six months, and there was no 1901 London season. Coun- 
try house pleasures were suspended, and the English upper classes went to 
the continent until the period of gloom was ended. 

Ultimately London was a gayer capital than ever before, for the King, 
after his coronation, conducted court functions at Buckingham Palace with 
unwonted splendor. The titled and rich people spent more time in town, 
and country house gayeties and recreations declined. 



114 THE CHARM OF VICTORIA'S LIFE. 

The Queen always inclined to be superstitious and has held firmly to the 
idea that three deaths always follow each other in royal families. Thus 
when the Duke of Coburg and Prince Christian Victor died she became 
possessed of the idea that she was fated to be the third, and nothing could 
dislodge this idea from her mind, which naturally enough greatly aggra- 
vated her melancholy. 

The Queen was the author of three books — "The Early 'Days of His 
Royal Highness Prince Consort," 1867; ''Leaves from Our Journal in the 
Highlands," 1869, and ''More Leaves from the Journal in Our Lives in the 
Highlands," 1885. 

Up to the time of Bean's attempt to assassinate the Queen it was only 

possible to deal with these outrages either as lunacy or high treason, for 

which the penalty was death. Then, however, a bill was passed making 

the offense punishable as misdemeanors by transportation, imprisonment or 

whipping. 

THE CHARM OF VICTORIA'S LIFE. 

The great charm of Victoria's life was her domestic character. Almost 
immediately after her marriage she set about to reform the household and 
improve the methods. This reform was carried out on lines suggested by 
Baron Stockmar, but in a manner in conformity to EngHsh precedent. The 
result was a great saving not to the Queen but to the people, who were taxed 
to maintain the profligacy which had prevailed. 

As the result of these operations the Queen determined to purchase 
private homes in which she might spend part of her time in the enjoyment 
of domestic tranquillity. Accordingly she purchased Osborne House, in the 
Isle of Wight, and Balmoral, in the Highlands of Scotland. Of Osborne 
House she wrote to her uncle in Brussels, March 25th, 1845; 

"It sounds so pleasant to have a place of one's own, quiet and retired 
and free from all woods and forests and other charming departments, which 
really are the plague of one's life." 

The estate and building cost £200,000, and was paid for by the Queen 
out of her own income. 

In the same way the estates of the Duchy of Cornwall, the property of 



I 



THE PRINCE CONSORT'S WORK. 115 

the Prince of Wales, was managed for his benefit, so that he had a large 
property when he attained his majority. 

THE PRINCE CONSORT'S WORK. 

The Prince Consort's love for landscape gardening found ample scope 
both at Osborne and Balmoral. The work was a constant source of recre- 
ation and delight to him, and he felt that he could say that the gardens 
were his creation. Of Balmoral the queen wrote in her diary October 13th, 
1856: 

"Every year my heart becomes more fixed in this dear paradise, and so 
much more so now that all has become my dearest Albert's own creation, 
own work, own building, own laying out, as at Osborne; and his great 
taste and the impress of his dear hand have been stamped everywhere." 

The Queen and Prince Consort were lovers from the day of their marriage 
and were inseparable. Her Majesty once wrote that she was unhappy if 
the Prince was absent from her even for a day. When it was necessary for 
him to leave her he kept her constantly supplied with diary letters showing 
that his thoughts and heart were always with her. 

On one of these absences, occasioned by the death of his father in 1844, 
he was away a fortnight. His own entry in his journal thus records his 
return: 

"Crossed on the nth. I arrived at 6 o'clock in the evening at Windsor. 
Great joy." 

The Queen was a great traveler. Her first visit to Scotland was made 
in 1842. In 1843 she visited Louis Philippe at Chateau d'Eu. In 1845 she 
visited Germany and in 1849 she first visited Ireland, when her reception was 
most enthusiastic. 

The first great grief which the Queen sustained — and it came almost in 
the form of a double bereavement — was in 186 1. In March of that year her 
mother, the Duchess of Kent, died. The Queen felt, as all must feel when 
death takes from them a beloved parent, that part of her life had gone which 
nothing could restore. She wrote in her diary: 

"How awful! How mysterious! But what a blessed end. Her gentle 



116 HER EXPRESSIONS ON WOMEN. 

spirit at rest, her sufferings over! But I — I, wretched child — who had lost 
the mother I so tenderly loved, from whom for these forty-one years I had 
never been parted except for a few weeks, what was my case? 

VICTORIA WIDOWED IN 1861. 

"My childhood — everything — seemed to crowd on me at once. I 
seemed to have lived through a hfe, to have become old! What I had 
dreaded and fought off the idea of for years had come and must be borne. 
The blessed future meeting and her peace and rest must henceforward be 
my comfort." 

But this bereavement was not her greatest, for before the year was out 
the Prince Consort also died. On Monday, November 25th, he paid a 
hurried visit to the Prince of Wales at Cambridge. He was feeling far from 
well, and entered into his diary on his return: "Bin recht lind." ("Am very 
wretched.") 

His last public appearance was on November 28th at a review of the 
Eton College volunteers. That it was a great effort for him to fulfill this 
engagement is proved by the short note in his diary, the last he every made: 
"Unhappily, I must be present." 

He was immediately taken down with typhoid fever, and died at 11:15 
o'clock on Saturday night, December 14th, 1861. 

The whole nation mourned and the Queen was inconsolable. Though 
faithfully discharging her official duties, she withdrew from the social world 
and remained in seclusion, and it was not until 1866 that she again opened 
Parliament in person, 

HER EXPRESSIONS ON WOMEN. 
The Queen once expressed the opinion that women were not intended 
for "government;" that it was a "masculine" occupation. Yet she herself 
was the best proof possible that supposedly "masculine" occupations could 
be well discharged by a woman. Again, the active interest which her 
daughters — the Empress Frederick and Princess Alice — showed in pro- 
moting opportunities for the education and employment of women was 
sometimes a source of worry to the Queen. "Though, on the whole," says 



WISE POLICY IN INDIAN AFFAIRS. 119 

Mrs. Fawcett, ''the Queen has been very far from giving encouragement, 
except by the magnificent example of her own life and character, to the 
modern movement among women for sharing in political work and respon- 
sibility, she testified her interest in their higher education by opening in 
person in 1887 the palatial buildings of Holloway College." 

Another of the modern women's movements which the Queen promoted 
was their entrance into the medical profession. 

In 1881, a medical missionary from India, Miss Beilby, was the bearer 
of a message from the Maharanee of Punnah to the Queen, telling Her 
Majesty of the terrible sufferings of Indian women from the want of duly 
qualified women doctors. 

The Queen was deeply moved by the tale of unnecessary sufifering, and 
of valuable Hves thrown away or blighted by the want of skillful and properly 
trained women to attend native women in sickness. The Queen especially 
charged Lady DufTerin with the task of instituting a fund to promote a 
regular supply of fully trained women doctors for India. 

After the Indian mutiny in 1858 and the transference of the government 
from the East India Company to the Crown, a royal proclamation was issued 
to the inhabitants of India. The original draft of this, submitted to the 
Queen, she thought appropriate neither in spirit nor in language. 

She pointed out that "it is a small sovereign who speaks to a hundred 
millions of Eastern people on assuming the direct government over them, 
and, after a bloody civil war, giving them pledges which her future reign is 
to redeem. * * ''' Such a document should breathe feelings of gen- 
erosity, benevolence, and religious toleration, and point out the privileges 
which the Indians will receive in being placed on an equality with the 
subjects of the British Crown, and the prosperity following in the train of 
civilization.'' 

WISE POLICY IN INDIAN AFFAIRS. 

To the wise policy pointed out by the Queen on this occasion was largely 
due whatever measure of success the British Government has had in dealing 
with the natives of India. It was as early as 1858 that Disraeli, reporting to 



120 A STORY OF JOHN BROWN. 

the Queen on the progress of the India bill through the House, wrote: 
"Your Majesty would do well to consider the steps which are now necessary 
to influence the opinions and affect the imaginations of the Indian popula- 
tions. The name of Your Majesty ought to be impressed upon their native 
life." 

It would appear from this that Disraeli had already in mind the concep- 
tion which he carried into effect some eighteen years later. In 1877 he 
succeeded in passing the bill which made Queen Victoria Empress of India, 
and thus put a definite stamp on the imperialism with which his name is 
associated. 

Never once since the Queen ascended the throne was there any serious 
danger to the monarchical system of Great Britain. While monarchies and 
republics elsewhere were shattered by blows of revolution, the throne of 
England remained unshaken. The French Republic, the empire of Louis 
Napoleon, the empire of Brazil passed away; the German empire sprang 
into existence, Italy became a single kingdom, and the sphere of Austria 
was contracted; but, amid all these dynastic changes, the Queen's throne 
stood unmoved like a rock amid the surges. 

A STORY OF JOHN BROWN. 

Her faithful Highlander servant, John Brown, was an odd character. 
He was independent, too, and had no fear whatever of his royal mistress. 

On one occasion the Queen was picnicking at the Glassalt Shielt, a 
cottage in the wild, near Balmoral. After luncheon the Queen desired a 
table for the purpose of sketching. Table after table was brought and 
rejected. At length John seized one of the discarded tables, planted it 
firmly before the Queen, and remarked: "It's na possible to mak' anither 
table for you up here." 

The Queen's regard for him is seen in her dedication of the second series 
of "Leaves." "To my loyal Highlanders, and especially to the memory of 
my devoted personal attendant and faithful friend, John Brown, these records 
of my widowed life in Scotland are gratefully dedicated." 

In the tenants of the little estate of Balmoral she took a patriarchal 



HOM^ HER LIFE WAS REGULATED. 121 

interest, if that term may be applied to a queen. She inquired after their 
circumstances, relieved their suffering, and did many kind offices with 
unaffected charity. It was no uncommon thing for the Queen to sit by the 
bedside of a sick peasant reading the Bible. Here is a characteristic touch 
from the "Leaves:" 

"I went into a small cabin of old Kitty Kear's, who is 86 years old — 
quite erect, and who welcomed us with a great air of dignity. She sat down 
and spun. 

"I gave her, also, a w-arm petticoat; she said, 'May the Lord ever attend 
ye and yours, here and hereafter; and may the Lord be a guide to ye, and 
keep ye from all harm.' 

"She was quite surprised at Vicky's height; great interest is taken in her. 
We went on to a cottage (formerly Jean Gordon's) to visit old Widow 
Symons, who is 'past fourscore,' with a nice rosy face, but was bent quite 
double; she was most friendly, shaking hands with us all, asking which was 
I, and repeating many kind blessings." 

It was not at Windsor or Buckingham, but at Osborne and Balmoral that 
the Queen enjoyed the happiness of domestic life with her husband and 
children. "Osborne," says Mrs. Fawcett, "was a harbor or refuge to which 
the Queen and Prince could run for a few days' rest at any time when they 
felt their strength almost exhausted from the constant pressure of political 
work and responsibility." Lady Canning wrote: "It perfectly enchants the 
Queen and Prince, and you never saw anything so happy as they are with 
the five babies playing round about them." 

HOW HER LIFE WAS REGULATED, 

Of the Queen's daily life the following account was given by a former 
member of the royal household: "She rose at half-past 6 in summer, 7 in 
winter, and always walked abroad, returning to morning prayers and break- 
fast, at which she ate heartily, and subsequently spent half an hour in the 
nursery. 

"She next received the master of the household, and decided what invi- 
tations should be accorded for the day; and then visited her aviary, menag- 



122 HOW HER LIFE WAS REGULATED. 

erie, aquarium, or stables. She was passionately fond of horses ana a good 
rider. 

"At 1 1 she gave audience to the Secretary of War, the Home and Foreign 
Secretaries; at 12 she lunched. At 3 she entered her carriage or rode on 
horseback, either visiting or on some errand of charity. Returning from 
her drive or ride, Her Majesty dined in state. 

"But that over, etiquette was dismissed; in the drawing-room the Queen 
played on the pianoforte and indulged in German games. At 1 1 she retired 
to rest." 



I 



CHAPTER IV. 

King" Edward and the Royal Family Take Their Final Look at the Face of the 
Queen, and Then the Features are Hidden Forever from Human Gaze — The 
King Closes Down the Lid of the Casket — Pathetic Scene in the Death 
Chamber — Remains Did Not Lie in State. 



O 



N THE 25th of January, 1901, the face of the Queen was forever 



hidden from human gaze. 



The royal family took their last loving look at the features of the 
Queen about 10 o'clock in the morning, when the oaken shell was brought 
into the bedroom at Osborne House, where, waiting, were King Edward, 
Emperor William, the Duke of Connaught, Sir James Reid, and the royal 
women. 

The latter having retired, Sir James Reid, with reverent hands, assisted 
by three trusted household servants, and in the presence of the King, the 
Emperor, and the Duke, removed the body from the bed to the coffin. 

In death, the face of the Queen was lovelier than in the closing days of 
life. Not a trace of the ravages of disease was visible. The servants having 
retired. Queen Alexander, the Princesses, and the children were recalled, 
and, with lingering steps and stifled sobs, they passed slowly before the 
white-robed and peaceful figure. 

At the foot, never moving, stood the King, and when the mourning 
crowd had passed there remained only the son and grandson of the dead. 

Emperor William wept bitterly. Finally he also retired and the King 
was left alone. 

Sir James Reid, beckoning to the servants, who were holding the coffin 
lid, asked the King's instructions. 

For a few seconds the King stood speechless, stricken with emotion at 
the last farewell. 

Then he said quickly: "Close it finally. It must not be opened again." 

133 



124 THE DEATH CHAMBER. 

Thus the remains of England's greatest ruler were forever closed from 
human view. Reverently the coffin was borne into the dining-room. 

Officers and men from the royal yachts took their stand around the 
coffin, over which the King, Queen, and Kaiser gently laid the robes of a 
Knight of the Garter, placing at the head a diamond crown. 

Beneath lay the royal ensign, while hanging above was the Union Jack. 

At the altar was the rector of Whippingham, who read a portion of the 
funeral service in the presence of the royal family. Emperor William covered 
his face with his hands, and the grief of Princess Beatrice was pitiful. 

After the benediction each placed a wreath upon the coffin and then all 
retired. The Emperor's tribute bore on its ribbons the initial "W." The 
offering of the German Empress bore the initials "A. V.," standing for 
Auguste Victoria. 

The most touching token was from the family of Dowager Lady 
Ampthill, who was the dearest friatid of the Queen after the death of 
Dowager Lady Churchill. The wreath was inscribed, *Tn reverent and 
profoundest grief, and with deep devotion, from Her Majesty's sorrowing 
subject and servant, Emily Ampthill." 

The wreath that perhaps touched the family more than any was "a small 
token of loyalty and deep regret from Miss Norman and the nursing sisters 
of the Royal Victoria Hospital at Netley." The hospital is on the mainland 
opposite Osborne. 

The apartments at Osborne House, where the business of the ruUng 
sovereign was conducted, are inscribed, "His Imperial Majesty," a title which 
had never heretofore been assumed by any English King. 

Emperor William and the King walked together for a time in the grounds 
in the morning. The Emperor's desire to take more than a formal part in 
the final ceremonies had been gratefully received, and the spectacle of part 
of his fighting fleet mourning side by side with ships of England was perhaps 
the most memorable among the public honors paid to Victoria. 

He, with the King and Princes, were on board the Alberta beside the 
coffin as the yacht steamed slowly through the fleets allied in mourning. 



THE DEATH CHAMBER. 125 

PATHETIC PICTURE OF THE DEATH CHAMBER. 

The wife of a workman on the Osborne estate, who was admitted to the 
death chamber at Osborne House, g-ives this touchingly sincere picture of 
the scene: 

"What I had expected to see was a great gilded chamber, and I thought 
the bed would be more like a throne than a bed, with a lot of candles all 
around and bishops praying — which was an impression I got from a picture 
in one of the illustrated papers when a foreign king once died. I was only 
there for a few minutes and all the time I was looking at the form lying on 
the bed. 

"I crept up to the bed and looked at the face. My thought was, 'How 
calm and happy!' She was looking like a person in a beautiful sleep. The 
face had over it a soft thin material, but you could look through and see it 
quite plain. 

"What I read in the papers I should think was quite right — I mean that 
she passed away peacefully, without any pain. 

"At the bottom of the bed there were flowers and some wreaths, and 
some loose ones. Her hands were folded across one another, and higher 
up there was a cross, I suppose of gold. Yes, and I remember the rings 
had not been taken off the fingers." 

Another eyewitness said: "It was like the figure of a child, not a woman, 
so small and faded was it. I frequently saw the Queen here, year after year, 
and this season she seemed to shrink away. But I was not prepared for the 
transformation the last few days of severe illness and the change death had 
made. 

"The face was almost emaciated and had the pallor one expects to find. 
But the whole form seemed tiny. 

"No one was allowed to stop, except to kneel, but the impression left 
was one of sublime peace and beauty and of the vanity of human greatness. 

"A veiled figure was kneeling by the bed on the apposite side from where 
we passed. It was Princess Beatrice, who cannot be torn away from the 
room." 



126 REMAINS AS THEY LAY IN THE DINING-HALL 

IN THE APARTMENT OF DEATH. 

The Queen's family and her faithful personal servants guarded her lifeless 
body as their most precious earthly possession. No stranger gazed on 
the aged form from whose face eternity had wiped the lines of time and 
care and sickness. Those outside her household and employment were not 
permitted to enter the chamber of death, but an officer of the royal yacht 
Alberta said that the body, as it lay in the bed, the face turned slightly to the 
right, in the direction of the windows opening on the waves of the Solent, 
did not seem much shrunken. The face, under a thin veil, was unforgettably 
white and statue-like, telling nothing of age or suffering. 

The weary, exhausted expression that marked Her Majesty's counte- 
nance when last she drove around this village had entirely disappeared. 

Outside two officers were on guard. Within two Indian attendants 
remained in company with the ladies in waiting, who were constantly 
present. 

The body was attired in black. The face w^as perfectly peaceful and the 
arms folded. On the breast rested a beautiful gold cross. 

Such a simple, pathetic scene as marked the afternoon succeeding the 
death of the Queen could hardly have occurred in any other monarchy. All 
the servants and tenants were admitted. The footmen, housemaids, coach- 
men, stable lads, and policemen, dressed in their Sunday clothes, filed 
through the room for four hours. There were no formalities. 

It might have been the body of any other country woman of rank whose 
tenants were bidding her a last farewell. 

Bent old men, children, and families who had grown up on the estate, 
who regarded Queen Victoria as a friend and patron rather than as a 
sovereign, took their turn, and their grief was the sorrow of those who had 
lost a friend. 

REMAINS AS THEY LAY IN THE DINING-HALL. 

When everything was in readiness the remains of the Queen were 
removed to the Chapelle Ardente, in the dining-hall of Osborne House. 



REMAINS AS THEY LAY IN THE DINING-HALL. 127 

They were incased in a magnificent shell of oak. The body rested within 
linings of filmy cotton wool overspread with folds of hand-woven white satin 
bordered with costly lace. This inner casket measured only five feet seven 
inches in length and twenty-three and one-half inches at the widest point. 
It was fitted into another coffin of oak, surrounded with rich ornamental 
moldings. The final covering was a massive silver box bearing at its head 
a golden nameplate, inscribed with the date of the queen's death and a 
biblical quotation chosen by King Edward. 

The great dining-hall of Osborne House, wherein the catafalque rested, 
was heavily draped with folds of black and crimson cloth. The casket itself 
was hidden from view by a wreath of fragrant floral emblems of every 
conceivable size and design. 

Close to the dead sovereign's arms lay a cross of white lilies, bearing the 
name of the King. Around the bier stood seven immense candlesticks from 
St. Paul's cathedral. Their flickering tapers radiated weirdly through the 
silent chamber. Day and night a detachment of grenadier guards in full 
regimentals kept watch over the catafalque, with their burnished gams at 
immovable sentry poise. 

After the body had been forever hidden from the gaze of even her loved 
ones, the coffin, which had been removed from the dining-hall to the death- 
chamber for this ceremony, was again carried to the hall, where the coffin 
remained until the departure from Osborne House for Windsor. 

The Queen was laid to rest beside the Prince Consort in the beautiful 
mausoleum, which she built for this purpose. 

The royal tomb is situated in Windsor Park, near Windsor Castle, within 
the grounds of Frogmore House. It is overlooked by the windows of the 
Queen's private apartments in Windsor Castle. 

During the summer the Queen frequently drove to Frogmore for break- 
fast or afternoon tea on the lawn. 

The mausoleum is in ornamental grounds dotted with fine trees, all 
planted by royal hands. The foundation of the tomb was laid by the Queen 
in 1862, and the body of the Prince Consort was deposited there. 

The mausoleum exteriorly is plain, cruciform, in the Romanesque style. 



128 REMAINS AS THEY LAY IN THE DINING-HALL. 

surmounted by an octagonal lantern. It is eighty-three feet high, eighty 
feet long and seventy feet broad. A tablet reads: 



His mourning widow, Victoria, directed 
that all that is mortal of Prince Albert be 
placed in this sepulchre, 1862. "Farewell, well 
beloved. Here at last I will rest with thee. 
With thee, in Christ, I will rise again." 



The interior is lavishly decorated in rich coloring and the sarcophagus 
of polished gray granite rests on a plinth of black marble. Four bronze 
angels meet with outstretched wings at the corners, and a white marble 
effigy of the Prince reposes on one side of the slab covering the body 
beneath. 

Beside it is a space destined for the Queen. 

There was a remarkable gathering of crowned heads of Europe and 
royalties at the funeral. 



CHAPTER V. 

King Edward VII. Takes the Oath on the Day Following the Death of His Mother 
— His Speech — Proclamation of the Accession of the New Sovereign — 
Quaint Ceremonies of Ancient Times Repeated at the Formalities in Lon- 
don — The King Heartily Cheered by His People. 

THE world is so busy, and King-doms and Empires must keep pace 
with the progress of the world of the twentieth century; hence, the 
day following the death of the great and gracious Queen and Empress, 
the whole machinery of the Empire was employed in the work of the installa- 
tion of the new Sovereign, H. R. and I. M. Edward VII., and proclaiming 
him as the Monarch of the mighty reahn. 

No one then living on that memorable 23rd of January, 1901, took part 
in or was present at the functions when they were last performed more than 
sixty-three years previously. Therefore the actors were guided only by 
tradition. That in itself was inadequate, for the progress of human knowl- 
edge and the growth of the Empire compelled certain modifications of the 
ancient ceremonies. 

It was appropriate enough before the days of telegraphs and railroads 
that mounted couriers should ride from town to town and heralds with 
trumpets should announce the accession of Queen Victoria. A portion of 
the quaint ceremony will be preserved. 

Heralds proclaimed Edward VII. as King the morning of January 24th 
in all parts of the Empire, but electric wires enabled its being done at prac- 
tically the same moment through the realm. 

Clad in the uniform of a Field Marshal, the King appeared, on January 
23rd, for the first time before his council to take the constitutional oath and 
then to receive their allegiance. His stalwart figure thus appareled seemed 
to present the incarnation of the military spirit, but there was, as well, 
gentleness, humility, and dignity in his words and bearing. 

The scene was solemnly impressive. It was impossible to banish the 

129 



130 KING EDWARD VII. TAKES THE OATH. 

grief caused by the loss of the well-beloved Queen, still unburied, and the 
melancholy thought obtruded itself on many minds that it was unreasonable 
to believe that the gray-haired man before them would preside for many 
years over the destinies of the vast Empire. 

There was no mistaking the whole-hearted personal as well as patriotic 
loyalty of the British people to Edward VII. and Queen Alexandra. There 
had been no opportunity for any public testimony of the popular afifection 
borne for the gentle woman who had attained the highest position of 
womanly dignity in Great Britain. The fleeting public glimpses of the King 
in the streets of London, however, were not permitted to pass without some 
expression of the public feeling. 

"Long live the King!" was cried many times, and cheers were hearty, 
but the heart of England was still at Osborne, and there it remained until it 
followed the silent bier to the last resting place of the best loved sovereign 
who ever reigned in the islands. 

There was also added sincere sympathy for the imperial mourner there, 
who was compelled to go away to perform filial duty at another death bed 
in his own land. The German Emperor held a warm place in the affections 
of the English people. 

The Duke of Connaught absented himself long enough for a last visit to 
Empress Frederick, his sister, before her death. 

Beyond the half-masted flags, the outward and visible sign of mourning 
in London, as throughout the kingdom, was confined to the shuttered shop 
windows. In London shops a black plank eight inches wide was fixed in the 
center of every window. 

In the country, where whole-piece rolling or iron shutters were uncom- 
mon, one of the ordinary narrow wooden shutters was placed down the mid- 
dle of the window. Private houses, unless they had flagstaffs. did not display 
any sign. On the day of the funeral the blinds were lowered, in accordance 
with the universal custom in England, where lowering the blinds on the day 
of a funeral is the only way in which the fashionable residents of private 
houses make a demonstration of sympathy. 

The King began the eventful day (January 23rd) in his career beside the 



KING EDWARD VII. TAKES THE OATH. 131 

body of his beloved mother in Osborne house. Then the duties of state 
called him away and he began his journey to London. 

The route from Osborne House to Trinity Pier, at Cowes, Isle of Wight, 
was deserted except for a few groups of bareheaded persons when, at 9:40 
o'clock a. m., three open carriages drawn by white horses galloped down the 
hill. 

In the first carriage were the King, the Duke of Connaught, the Duke of 
York, and Prince Christian. The King looked well and bowed repeatedly in 
acknowledgment of the greeting of his subjects. The royal personages 
immediately embarked on the Alberta. 

The royal standard was hoisted as the King touched the deck. As the 
Alberta started ofif signals were shown ordering that no salutes should be 
fired. 

The crews of the cruiser Australia and the other royal yachts were mus- 
tered as the Alberta steamed by. 

The commencement of his first voyage as King was a memorable and 
impressive event. 

Across the narrow channel from the Isle of Wight to the mainland the 
royal party on board the Alberta proceeded without marked incident. An 
escort of warships was constantly in communication with the yacht. 

The King and his suit entered the capital city of the realm at 12:55 P- "^•' 
and proceeded directly to Marlborough House. 

Dense crowds, beginning at St. James street, lined the entire route to 
Victoria Station from an early hour. The Mall and the front of Buckingham 
Palace were especially thronged. All along the former, from the palace to 
Marlborough House, carriages filled with women stood as if for a drawing- 
room, except that the coachmen, footmen and occupants were all dressed 
in mourning. 

The police precautions were unusual. Men on foot and mounted guarded 
almost every yard of the way. 

The crowd waited patiently for hours to greet their King. Finally, pre- 
ceded by half a dozen mounted policemen, the new sovereign arrived in a 
plain brougham, which was driven rapidly, with the coachman and footman 



132 KING EDWARD VII. TAKES THE OATH. 

in their usual gray liveries, with mourning bands on their arms. An equerry 
was seated beside him. 

The King was, of course, dressed in the deepest and most simple mourn- 
ing, and raised his hat in acknowledgment of the silent uncovering of heads, 
which was more impressive than the most enthusiastic cheers. The King 
looked tired and sad, but well. 

Following him came the Duke of York (the heir apparent), the Duke of 
Connaught, and others. Both the King and the Duke of York looked 
pathetically up at Buckingham Palace as they passed and acknowledged the 
salute of the guard of honor drawn up inside the palace grounds. 

The troops there and elsewhere showed no signs of mourning, except 
that the bands were not present, but all the ofificers had crepe on their left 
sleeve. 

The King drove to St. James' Palace, from Marlborough House, to pre- 
side at the first privy council, by way of the Marlborough House yard, the 
Mall, and the Garden entrance of the palace. He was attended by Lord 
Suffield (who had been Lord of the Bedchamber to the Prince of Wales 
since 1872) and was escorted by a captain's escort of the Horse Guards. 
The procedure was exactly as on levee days. 

By the time the King arrived a great gathering of Privy Councilors, in 
levee dress with crepe on their left arm, had taken up positions in the throne- 
room — Cabinet Ministers, peers, commoners, Bishops, Judges, the Lord 
Mayor, etc., including the Duke of York, the Duke of Connaught, and lesser 
members of the royal family. 

Lord Salisbury (the Prime Minister), Lord Rosebery, A. J. Balfour, the 
Duke of Devonshire, Lord Strathcona and Mount Royal, and a host of the 
most prominent personages in the land were there to receive the King's 
formal oath binding him to govern the kingdom according to its laws and 
customs and hear him assume the title of King Edward VH. of Great Britain 
and Ireland and Emperor of India. 

The ceremony was interesting and according to precedent. The King 
was in a separate apartment from the Privy Councilors. To the latter the 
Duke of Devonshire, Lord President of the Council, formally communicated 



KING EDWARD VII. TAKES THE OATH. 133 

the death of Queen Victoria, and the succession to the throne of her son, 
the Prince of Wales. The royal Dukes, with certain Lords of the Council, 
were then directed to repair to the King's presence to acquaint him with the 
terms of the Lord President's statement. 

Shortly afterwards His Majesty entered the room in which the Councilors 
were assembled and addressed them in a brief speech. 

Mingling with the royal Dukes and great personages of the kingdom 
were a few men in plain clothes to represent the fact that the general public 
had a nominal right to be present. 

The King wore a Field Marshal's uniform and the ribbon of the Order of 
the Garter. When he began his speech his voice was painfully broken with 
emotion, but he recovered as he went on. 

His brief speech was delivered with great earnestness and was quite 
extemporaneous. It is expected it will be pubhshed later in official form. 

The Lord Chancellor (Lord Halsbury) then administered the oath of the 
King. 

Afterwards the various members of the Council, commencing with Lords 
in Council, took the oath of allegiance, and then passed in turn before His 
Majesty, as at a levee, excepting that each paused and kissed the King's hand 
before passing out of the chamber. This brought the ceremony to a close. 

By y-ZO p. m., when His Majesty returned to Marlborough House, the 
crowd in the neighborhood was of immense proportions. 

The King's prior journey was accomplished in almost complete silence, 
but on this occasion he was lustily cheered all along the line of route. 

Immediately opposite Marlborough House gates a tall man in front of 
the crowd waved his hat and shouted: "Long live the King!" whereupon the 
crowd cheered with redoubled vigor. 

At the last moment the King decided not to attend the House of Lords. 

The proclamation of the accession of His Majesty was signed by the 
Princes present, the Duke of York first, then the Duke of Connaught, the 
Duke of Cambridge, Prince Christian, the Archbishop of Canterbury, the 
Lord Chancellor, the Lord Mayor, and the other representatives of the city 
of London. 



134 KING EDWARD VII . TAKES THE OATH. 

At 4:30 p. m. the artillery began firing salutes in St. James' Park to sig- 
nalize King Edward's accession to the throne. 

Among the incidents of the day was an imposing civic procession. The 
Lord Mayor and Aldermen, accompanied by the City Marshal, Mace-bearer, 
and other members of the corporation, escorted by a strong body of police, 
proceeded from the Mansion House, by way of the Thames embankment and 
Trafalgar square, to St. James' Palace, in gilded equipages, with liveried out- 
riders, including twenty semi-state carriages, making a notable picture, which 
was witnessed by thousands of silent people, who filled the sidewalks along 
the entire route. 

The royal proclamation by the Earl Marshal was heralded at St. James' 
Palace and the other customary centers the next day. 

The House of Lords and the House of Commons assembled at 4 o'clock 
and took the oath of allegiance to the new sovereign. The attendance in the 
House of Commons was large. All the members, dressed in the deepest 
mourning, stood up as Speaker Gully entered and announced that, by reason 
of the deeply lamented decease of Her Majesty Queen Victoria, it had 
become their duty to take the oath of allegiance to her successor. His 
Majesty King Edward VH. 

The Speaker then administered the oath, and the swearing in of the 
members proceeded. Joseph Chamberlain, the Secretary of State for the 
Colonies; Sir Michael Hicks-Beach, the Chancellor of the Exchequer; Sir 
Henry Campbell-Bannerman, the Liberal leader in the House, and Sir Will- 
iam Vernon Harcourt were the first to subscribe their names on the roll. 

In the House of Lords the oath was taken by the Duke of York, the 
Duke of Connaught, Earl Roberts, Lord Rosebery, Lord Salisbury, the 
Duke of Argyll, Lord Lansdowne, and a hundred others. The House of 
Lords then adjourned for the day. Many peeresses, in the deepest mourn- 
ing, were in the galleries. 

A special gazette issued late that night contained the formal announce- 
ment of the time and place of the Queen's death, and added: "This event 
has caused one universal feeling of regret and sorrow to her late Majesty's 
faithful and attached subjects, to whom she was endeared by deep interest in 



I 




9 \ 



ACCESSION SPEECH OF EDWARD VII. 137 

their welfare, which she invariably manifested, as well as by the many signal 
virtues which marked and adorned her character." 

ACCESSION SPEECH OF EDWARD VII. 

The following is the full text of the accession speech of His Royal and 
Imperial Majesty: 

"Your Royal Highnesses, My Lords and Gentlemen: This is the most 
painful occasion on which I shall ever be called upon to address you. 

"My first and melancholy duty is to announce to you the death of my 
beloved mother, the Queen, and I know how deeply you and the whole 
nation, and, I think I may say, the whole world, sympathize with me in the 
irreparable loss we have all sustained. 

"I need hardly say that my constant endeavor will be always to walk in 
her footsteps. 

"In undertaking the heavy load which now devolves upon me, I am fully 
determined to be a constitutional sovereign in the strictest sense of the word, 
and, so long as there is breath in my body, to work for the good and amel- 
ioration of my people. 

"I have resolved to be known by the name of Edward, which has been 
borne by six of my ancestors. 

"In doing so I do not undervalue the name of Albert, which I inherit 
from my ever-to-be-lamented great and wise father, who by universal con- 
sent is, I think, deservedly knov/n by the name of Albert the Good, and I 
desire that his name should stand alone. 

"In conclusion, I trust to Parliament and the nation to support me in the 
arduous duties which now devolve upon me by inheritance, and to which I 
am determined to devote my whole strength during the remainder of my 
life." 

The Gazette contained a proclamation by the King citing the acts of 
Queen Anne and King William IV. regarding the retention of office by per- 
sons in the employment of the Crown, and in accordance therewith decreeing 
that all officeholders in the United Kingdom, colonies, foreign possessions, 
and India should continue to hold office during His Majesty's pleasure. 



138 COMPLICATED PROBLEMS PRESENTED. 

It was noteworthy that in this document the King was styled "Edward, 
R.," not "Edward, R. I." 

COMPLICATED PROBLEMS PRESENTED TO OFFICIALS. 

It seemed almost impossible to exhaust the list of persons and institu- ■ 
tions not strictly official that were affected by the "demise of the Crown," for 
such, technically, was the correct expression in speaking of the death of a 
British sovereign, it being, under the theory of the English constitution, a 
fiction that the King never dies. 

It had a serious effect on the members of the Queen's household, a major- 
ity of whom were personal officers, whose offices ended with the death of the 
sovereign appointing them. King Edward, however, retained some of those 
long attending him while he was the Prince of Wales, and gave them steps in 
ranks. 

A more important fact was that the death of the Queen opened the whole 
question of the royal revenues. For instance, in the time of George III. the 
Crown lands were valued at £89,000 annually. He surrendered these lands 
to the public, receiving in exchange an annuity of £800,000. 

When the Queen surrendered them similarly in 1837 they were worth 
f I24,744,and she received in exchange an annuity of £385,000. The arrange- 
ment ended with her death. The lands were, in 1901, worth £530,000 
annually. Therefore, when Pariiament attended to the matter of making ^ 

provision for the King he received far more than the Queen for the lands. * 

There were innumerable smaller changes affecting the phraseology of 
everything in conversation and in the aspects of objects meeting the eye at » 

every turn. The word King came strangely to lips so long accustomed 
to Queen. It was some time before expressions used thousands of times 
daily throughout the realm took readily to the new form, such as "God Save 
the King," "Soldiers of the King," "The King's English," "King's Bench," i 

and "King's Counsel." * 

An interesting point in regard to the latter expression was that the 
Queen's Counsel returned to the ranks of ordinary barristers and were not 
entitled to again "wear silk" and be called King's Counsel until they had m 



PROCLAIMING THE ACCESSION IN LONDON. 139 

lenevved their oath of allegiance. Many of that sort of changes involved not 
only a feeling of strangeness, but in the aggregate an immense outlay. The 
stamps at the mint were new for the following year's coinage. 

So, too, with the postofifice and revenue stamps, mailcarts, mailbags, 
military buttons, and the myriad of things stamped "V. R. I." Henceforth 
"E. R. I." was on all these things. The form of all legal procedure was 
altered. The "Queen's writ" no longer ran, and a baiHff could not summon 
to the Debtor's Court with what was often familiar and always avoided — 3. 
blue sheet headed "Victoria, by the grace of God," etc. — until fresh forms 
were authorized and printed. 

The prayer book of the Established Church was obsolete in its forms of 
prayer for the royal family. 

PROCLAIMING THE ACCESSION IN LONDON. 

On January 24th the accession of King Edward VII. to the throne was 
proclaimed in London to the common people by a quaint old ceremony, 
alike medieval and picturesque. The College of Arms, or Heralds College, 
which carried out the strange function, was almost an unknown institution 
to the general public. Moreover there was practically no notice given of the 
official plans, and it almost seemed to be the intention to avoid a great pub- 
lic demonstration, which unquestionably would have been made if the pro- 
gramme had been definitely announced. It was a formality, therefore, which 
only a few thousands witnessed. 

The actors therein seemed to be some strange creatures come down from 
? far-off age. 

Their marvelous dress and accouterments suggested more than anything 
else the figures on the court cards of a playing pack suddenly incarnated. 
They almost dashed through the city and performed their functions in the 
same haste as though anxious to vanish again into the deep past from which 
they had been unwillingly resurrected. 

The King had returned to Osborne House. Thither, also, returned the 
thoughts of the nation, after having been diverted for a few hours by the 



140 PROCLAIMING THE ACCESSION IN LONDON. 

remorseless demands of monarchical institutions, which required the swear- 
ing of a new allegiance the moment the old is canceled by death. 

It was known in general terms what were the Queen's own wishes in 
respect to her funeral rites and burial. The woman who above all else loved 
peace and abhorred war was to have a military funeral. She asked that her 
body be carried to its last resting place like a soldier's, upon a gun carriage. 
Such she considered to be a fitting tribute to pay to the sovereign of "a 
proud and warlike people." 

The navy also was to play a prominent part. All the warships which 
could be mustered were to assemble in the channel before February ist to 
escort the ashes of the sovereign in the midst of a vast fleet from Osborne to 
Southampton. London was to have the opportunity of paying a brief, silent 
tribute at the royal bier. A military cavalcade was to escort the precious 
dust upon its grim martial vehicle across the city, whence it was to be taken 
to Windsor for the final ceremony. 

It was in raw, damp weather, under a dismal sky, that Edward VII. was, 
on the morning of January 24th, proclaimed King to the citizens of London. 

Before daylight troops marched from their quarters in and about the 
capital to take their stations along the route to be followed by the Heralds' 
procession. In addition there were many thousand policemen along the line 
of march. 

The arrangements for the ceremony were not announced until the morn- 
ing papers had appeared, and it was fixed for such an early hour as to prevent 
any great gathering of sight-seers. A semblance of a popular festivity soon 
appeared, however, when persons began to arrive on the early trains to go to 
business. 

A considerable portion of this crowd lingered to witness what was possi- 
ble of the ceremony. Few, if any, of them had ever witnessed such a scene 
before, but there was Httle if anything in the shape of a pageant. 

The Heralds' procession consisted merely of a few uniformed notables 
in carriages, escorted by cavalry, driving quickly between dark lines of great- 
coated troops and police. 

The proclamation ceremony itself was brief and simple. It first took 



vil 



EARL ROBERTS HEADS THE TROOPS. 141 

place in the quadrangle at St. James' Palace. The surroundhigs were sol- 
emn in the extreme. The dinginess of the smoke-begrimed building was not 
relieved by a touch of color except the dull cloth which covered the balcony 
from which the proclamation was to be read and the glittering uniforms of 
the four trumpeters and the troops, which were drawn up in the quadrangle 
in their dark gray surtouts and black bearskin headgear. 

EARL ROBERTS HEADS THE TROOPS. 

Only a few moments before the reading of the proclamation was a little 
brightness introduced by the arrival of Field Marshal Earl Roberts and half 
a score of high military officers, mounted and in full uniform, but without 
greatcoats. Earl Roberts wore the ribbon of the Order of the Garter Hke a 
sash over his field marshal's uniform and carried a baton. 

These officers took a position facing the balcony, and as the clock struck 
9 the Earl Marshal (the Duke of Norfolk), in scarlet and gold uniform, with 
a little group which included Garter-King-of-Arms, Clarence-King-of-Arms, 
Norroy-King-of-Arms, and other officers of the Heralds' College, attired in 
the brilliant traditional tabards emblazoned with the royal arms of Great 
Britain, appeared on the balcony. 

There was a blare of trumpets, and then Clarence-King-of-Arms, in a 
clear voice and amid impressive and reverent silence, read the proclamation. 

The King-of-Arms paused for a moment and then cried in a stentorian 
voice: "God Save the King!" The crowd thereupon removed their hats and 
broke into hearty cheers. 

There was another fanfare by the trumpeters, the band of the Grenadier 
Guards played the national anthem on crepe-enveloped instruments, and the 
soldiers saluted. Lieutenant Sartorius, the officer having charge of the 
King's standard, raised it aloft. 

After this the Heralds withdrew and drove toward the city, where the 
proclamation was read again. Earl Roberts and his staff did not accompany 
them. 

Subsequently the proclamation was read at Temple Bar and the Royal 



142 EARL ROBERTS HEADS THE TROOPS. 

Exchange in the presence of large and orderly crowds, who listened intently 
until its conclusion and then cheered. 

There was a picturesque scene when Rouge Dragon Pursuivant-at-Arms 
demanded official entrance to the city at Temple Bar to proclaim the King. 
The street was lined with troops, who were flanked by an immense crowd. 
The Lord .Mayor and city dignitaries, in quaint official dress, took up posi- 
tions at the confines of the city to await his arrival. An escort of the horse 
guards soon arrived and halted before the law courts, from which Rouge 
Dragon Pursuivant-at-Arms drove forward to Temple Bar. 

He advanced at the head of the pageant and alighted from the carriage. 
Then he advanced between two trumpeters to the city boundary, which was 
marked with a red silk cord. 

The City Marshal in stentorian tones demanded: "Who goes there?" 
Rouge Dragon replied by asking permission to enter the city. This was 
granted and the Pursuivant was conducted to the Lord Mayor. He 
explained his presence within the city by handing the Mayor an order in 
council. The Lord Mayor having read this the scarlet cord was removed, a 
herald read the proclamation, and the procession passed. 

The Lord Mayor, with the civic authorities, proceeded then to the Royal 
Exchange, from the steps of which the Lord Mayor, in his black, gold- 
braided robe of state and attended by the sword bearer and the sergeant- 
at-arms bearing their mac.es, read the warrant of the Privy Council and called 
upon the herald to proclaim the accession of Edward VH. 

The great crowd greeted the title with loud and long cheers. Then the 
herald read the proclamation. 

There was no band at this point, as there was at St. James' Palace and 
Temple Bar, but the crowd sang "God Save the King" and gave three times 
three cheers for King Edward VH., and the same number for Queen Alex- 
andra, after which the officers departed. 

At the Mansion House the proclamation w-as read by Mr. Weldon, 
Deputy for Garter-King-of-Arms. Among those present were the Duke of 
Portland, Sir Henry Ewart, Earl Coxidon, the Lord Chamberlain; the Earl 



CONFUSION OVER THE KING'S WORDS. 143 

of Pembroke, the Hon. Sir Spencer Ponsonby Fane, and Mr. Henry White, 
the Secretary of the American embassy. 

The Lord Mayor addressed the crowd from the balcony of the Mansion 
House. He asked them to join with him from the bottom of their hearts in 
singing "God Save the King." The people responded heartily. 

CONFUSION OVER THE KING'S WORDS. 

Peculiar confusion arose over the King's speech to the Council at the 
oath-taking. None present recorded the words. The first version given out 
was compiled from memory by some of those who listened. It was quite a 
different speech as printed in the Gazette. 

After the ceremony His Majesty was asked to supply a copy of his speech 
for official purposes. He replied that none existed, as he had spoken quite 
extemporaneously. The version published in the Gazette was then sketched 
by His Majesty's direction. 

Tradesmen, priding themselves on the warrant "by special appointment 
of Her Majesty" and mounting the royal arms over their doors, must seek 
reappointment. Even such great ones as ambassadors are on a level with 
them on this point. They represented the Queen. They will not represent 
the King until they are reappointed. But it would be possible to prolong the 
list almost without limit. Tradesmen and artificers will have a busy week to 
come on account of such alterations. 

On the other hand, certain tradesmen will sustain heavy losses. Enter- 
tainments will be few and quiet. Paris has been flooded with telegrams coun- 
termanding orders for colored goods. There is a heavy demand for black 
goods, which to a certain extent will recompense some firms, but the chief 
offset to many West End tradesmen affected in this way will be the heavy 
insurance many of the far-seeing ones long ago effected on the Queen's life. 
This insurance in the aggregate represents an enormous sum of money, the 
payment of which will have a noticeable effect in the city. 

Contrary to the general opinion, the Duke of York did not become 
Prince of Wales through the accession of his father. The title of Prince of 



144 CONFUSION OVER THE KING'S WORDS. 

Wales becomes merged in the sovereignty, but the King can exercise his 
prerogative and confer the PrincipaHty of Wales on the heir apparent. The 
new King was born on November 9th, 1841, but he was created Prince of 
Wales only on the following December 4th. There have been six royal 
Princes who have never been created Prince of Wales. However, the Duke 
of York became at once Duke of Cornwall, and the Duchess of Fife (Prin- 
cess Louise of Wales) became a Princess royal, as this capacity is treated 
by the law in much the same way as the mother of a Queen Consort. 

The King remained in London over night. He dined at Buckingham 
Palace with the Duchess of Albany. Subsequently he went to Marlborough 
House to sleep, and returned the following morning to direct the funeral 
arrangements. 

While the sovereign's rank and titles were being conferred on Edward 
Vn. in his capital, preparations for honoring the body of Victoria absorbed 
her household. Osborne House still remained the Queen's private residence. 
Flowers arrived there in profusion from the gardens at Windsor, these being 
taken to decorate the dining-room, which was now the mortuary chapel. It 
is immediately below the Queen's bedroom. The coffin was carried down 
the grand staircase and placed on a dais in the center of the mortuary chapel. 
The pictures, like the walls, were entirely hidden by crimson cloth, except two 
tapestries on either side of a window. 

The new King bore the responsibility of sovereignty most gravely. Sun- 
day, before the Queen's death, when he boarded the royal yacht, anxiety was 
written on his healthy, open features, but returning to Osborne his features 
showed a set, grave expression. He was met by the German Emperor. The 
occupants of both carriages shared the fresh color of all Victoria's family, but 
there was a deep sense of the difference, which many residents who had seen 
him on innumerable occasions remarked instantly as he stood uncovered to 
see the hoisting of the colors before he drove to Osborne House. 

The greeting between him and Emperor Wilham outside the house was 
confined to a silent handclasp. 

King Edward, upon leaving London, was escorted by a squadron of the 
Horse Guards and accompanied by the Duke of York, Prince Christian of 



1 



CONFUSION OVER THE KING'S WORDS. 145 

Schleswig-Holstein, the Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, and others. The 
royal party left Marlborough House at 1 1 o'clock. 

His Majesty saw a portion of the proclamation procession from his win- 
dow. 

A royal salute, in celebration of His Majesty's accession, was fired at 
noon in St. James' Park. 

The vagaries of an apparently harmless lunatic occasioned some excite- 
ment at Victoria Station. During the entraining of the King a well-dressed 
individual, bearing a letter addressed to His Majesty, was permitted to pass 
the barriers. He hurried to an equerry and said he wished to present the 
letter to the King personally. The man was handed over to the police. 

The envelope contained only a telegraph form, on which were the words, 
"I wish to see my beloved Queen." 

The solemn funeral services at Osborne were performed on Friday morn- 
ing, January 25th, by the Bishop of Winchester in the presence of King 
Edward, Emperor William, and almost every other member of the royal 
family. 

Lord Pelham Clinton authorized the statement that there would be no 
lying in state. However, many were afforded the privilege of seeing their 
dead Queen. 

The new Queen refused to allow herself to be called Queen. 

"Your Majesty," said one of her entourage. 

"Your Royal Highness, you mean," was the immediate interruption. 



CHAPTER VI. 

Eulogies of Victoria and Congratulations to Edward Pronounced in Both Houses of 
Parliament at Westminster on the 25th of January — Noble Tribute Paid to 
the Queen by Her Last Prime Minister, the Marquis of Salisbury — The 
Address to the King — Honors to Queen Alexandra. 

GRIEF and joy were never so closely joined as in the official eulogies 
of the dead monarch and the congratulations to the new one. These 
were pronounced in both Houses of Parliament at Westminster on 
the 25th of January by the respective leaders in response to the first message 
from the King to the people's representatives. 

It was the greatest Parliamentary scene in recent times, and the orations 
pronounced by Lord Sahsbury, the Premier, and Mr. A. J. Balfour, First 
Lord of the Treasury, while unpretending, were adequate appreciations of 
the great and good sovereign now dead. 

They were worthy of the occasion, which, as one of the speakers said, 
marked the close of an epoch in the world's history. It would not be counted 
to them as lack of loyalty to the new sovereign if the burden of their words 
was sorrow for the lost more than joy for the gained. 

All that they said, all that the nation felt, was perhaps best summed up 
in these few lines, published on that sorrowful day: 

Britannia — "I am broken-hearted." 

Death — "Edward VII. is his mother's son." 

Great audiences, somber and silent in their mourning garments, hung 
almost breathless upon the words of the English nation's leaders as they led 
them through conflicting emotions from grief to consolation, from hope to 
a new allegiance. 

The House of Commons met at 3 o'clock in the afternoon. Mr. A. J. 
Balfour, First Lord of the Treasury and government leader, brought up the 
message from the King, which the Speaker, William Court Gully, read, as 
follows: 

146 



MR. BALFOUR MOVES THE ADDRESS. 147 

"The King is fully assured that the House of Commons will share the 
deep sorrow which has befallen His Majesty and the nation by the death of 
His Majesty's mother, the late Queen. Her devotion to the welfare of her 
country and her wise and beneficent rule during sixty-four years of glorious 
reign will ever be held in affectionate memory by her loyal and devoted sub- 
jects throughout the dominions of the British Empire." 

MR. BALFOUR MOVES THE ADDRESS. 

Mr. Balfour, after the reading of the message, rose amid impressive 
silence to move an address to the King. He said: 

"The history of this House is not a brief or uneventful one, but I think it 
never met under sadder circumstances than to-day or had a duty laid upon 
it more clearly of expressing a universal sorrow, which extends not only from 
one end of the kingdom to the other, but from one end of the empire to the 
other — a sorrow which fills every heart and which every citizen of this great 
empire feels, not merely as a national but as an irreparable personal loss. 

"I don't know how others may feel, but for my own part I can hardly yet 
realize the magnitude of the blow which has fallen on the country. It was a 
blow, indeed, which we had sorrowfully to expect, but not on that account 
was it any the less heavy when it fell. 

"I suppose that in all the history of the British monarchy there has never 
been a case when the feeling of national grief has been so deep-seated as the 
present — so universal, so spontaneous — and that grief affects us not merely 
because of the loss which has befallen us, but because we feel, as it were, that 
the end of a great epoch has come — an epoch the beginning of which 
stretches far beyond the memory of any individual I am now addressing, and 
which embraces within its compass sixty-three years. 

"I venture to think that this epoch has been more important, more 
crowded with great changes than almost any other period of the same length 
that could be selected in the history of the world. 

"It is wonderful to think when so many changes now familiar to us, and 
almost vulgarized by constant discussion and repetition, were yet unthought 
of or undeveloped; those great industrial inventions, those great economic 



148 MR. BALFOUR MOVES THE ADDRESS. 

changes, those great discoveries of science which are now in all men's mouths 
—before these, I say, were thought of or developed, Queen Victoria ruled 
over this empire, 

"But it is not simply the length of her reign, not simply the magnitude 
of the events with which her reign was filled, which has produced the deep, 
abiding emotion that stirs all hearts throughout the empire. 

'The reign of Queen Victoria is no mere chronological landmark. It is 
no mere convenient division of time useful for the historian or the chronicler. 

"We feel as we do feel because we were intimately associated with the 
personality of Queen Victoria during the succession of the great events which 
filled her reign and during the development of empire wherever she has 
ruled, and in so associating her personality with these events surely we do 
well. 

"The importance of the constitution, in my judgment, is not a diminish- 
ing, but an increasing factor. It is increasing and must increase with all the 
growth and development of those free, self-governing communities — those 
new commonwealths beyond the seas which are bound to us by the person of 
the sovereign, who is the leading symbol of the unity of the empire. 

"But it is not given to a constitutional monarch to signalize his reign by 
any great isolated action. The effect of a constitutional sovereign, great as 
it is, is produced by the slow and constant cumulative results of a great ideal 
and a great example. 

"As to that great ideal and example, surely Victoria is the first of all con- 
stitutional monarchs the world has yet seen. 

"Where shall we find an ideal so lofty in itself, so constantly and consis- 
tently maintained through two generations — through more than two gener- 
ations — of her subjects, and through many generations of her public men 
and the members of this House? 

"It would be impertinent in me to attempt to explain in words the efifect 
which the character of the late sovereign produced on all who were in any 
degree brought in contact with her. The ample dignity befitting a monarch 
of this realm, in that she could not fail — because it arose from her inherent 
sense of the fitness of things. 



MR. BALFOUR MOVES THE ADDRESS. 149 

"It was no trapping put on for office, and therefore it was that this 
Queenly dignity only served to throw into higher relief those admirable vir- 
tues of the wife, mother, and woman with which she was so richly endowed. 

"Those kindly graces, those admirable qualities, had endeared her to 
every class of the community. Less was known, perhaps, of the life of con- 
tinuous labor which the position of Queen threw upon her. 

"Short as was the interval between the last trembling signature she 
affixed to a public document and her final rest, it was yet long enough to clog 
and hamper the wheels of the administration. 

"When I saw the vast mass of untouched documents which awaited the 
hand of the sovereign it was brought vividly to my mind how admirable was 
the unostentatious patience with which for sixty-three years, through sorrow 
and suffering, in moments of weariness, in moments of despondency it might 
be, she carried on, without intermission, her share in the government of this 
great empire. For here there were no holidays, no intermission in her toil. 

"Domestic sorrow and domestic sickness made no difference in her labors 
from the hour when she became the sovereign to within a few days of her 
death. 

"It is easy to chronicle the growth of the empire, the progress of trade, 
and the triumph of war, all events of which make history interesting. But 
who is there that will weigh in the balance the effect which such an example 
produced on the highest life of the people? 

"It was a great life, and had a fortunate, and, in my judgment, a happy 
ending. The Queen had her reward in the undying affection of all her sub- 
jects. This had not always been the fate of her ancestors. It had not been 
the fate of some of the greatest among them. 

"Such was not the destiny of Victoria. She passed away with her children 
and their children's children around her, beloved of all, cherished of all. She 
passed away, I believe, without a single enemy in the world, for even those 
who love not England love her. 

"She passed away not only knowing that she was — I almost said — wor- 
shiped by all her subjects. But their feell.i,^ had grown in depth and inten- 



150 



MR. BALFOUR MOVES THE ADDRESS. 



sity that she was spared to us. No such reign, no such end had ever been 
known in our history. 

'The message of the King calls forth, according to immemorial usage, a 
double response. We condole with His Majesty in the inconsolable loss he 
and his country have sustained, and congratulate him upon his accession to 
the sovereignty of this ancient kingdom. 

"I suppose there is no sadder heart in the kingdom than that of the sov- 
ereign, and it therefore savors of irony that we should offer congratulations, 
yet it is not so. 

"Each generation must bear its own burden, and in the course of nature 
it is right that the burden of the monarchy should fall on the heir to the 
throne. 

"It is for us on this occasion, so momentous in the history of the country, 
to express to the King our unfailing confidence that the great interests com- 
mitted to his charge are safe in his keeping, to assure him of the unfailing 
support which his loyal subjects are ever prepared to give, to wish him honor 
and long life, and to wish, above all, that his reign may in the eyes of envious 
posterity fitly compare and form an appropriate sequel to the great epoch 
which has just drawn to a close. 

"I now beg leave to read the following address, to which I ask the House 

to assent: 

" 'Resolved, That an humble address be presented to His Majesty that the 
House deeply sympathizes with the great sorrow which His Majesty has sus- 
tained in the death of our beloved sovereign, the late Queen, whose unfail- 
ing devotion to the duties of her high estate and to the welfare of the people 
will ever cause her to be remembered with reverence and affection. 

" 'We submit to His Majesty our respectful congratulations on his acces- 
sion to the throne and assure His Majesty of our loyal affection to his person, 
and further assure him of our earnest conviction that his reign will be distin- 
guished, under the blessing of Providence, by his anxious desire to maintain 
the laws of the kingdom and promote the happiness of his subjects.' " 



TOUCHING SCENE IN HOUSE OF LORDS. 151 

QUEEN ALEXANDRA IS BELOVED. 

Mr. Henry Campbell-Bannerman, formerly Secretary of State for War, 
seconded the address. He indorsed the remarks of Mr. Balfour and added 
the following tribute to Queen Alexandra: 

"It is an additional satisfaction to us to know that His Majesty will have 
by his side an august Consort, who has endeared herself to the hearts of the 
British people ever since she first set foot on their soil. There will be 
no discordant voice in this House. If there were we should not fitly repre- 
sent those who sent us here." 

The Speaker then put the address, which was carried unanimously, and 
the House adjourned until February 14th. 

TOUCHING SCENE IN THE HOUSE OF LORDS. 

The House of Lords presented an imposing spectacle when it assembled 
at 4 o'clock to receive the King's message announcing the death of Victoria. 

The stately chamber, with its air of subdued splendor, the two long lines 
of peeresses, dressed in the deepest mourning, in the side galleries; the 
throng of England's nobility in somber attire on the bright red benches on 
the floor, and the Queen's empty throne, all conspired to make a scene pic- 
turesque in itself and fascinating in the associations it awakened. 

Just before the Premier rose to speak there hobbled in towards the cross 
bench used by royalty a tallish, white-haired, stoutly built, decrepit old man. 

It was the Queen's cousin, the octogenarian Duke of Cambridge, who 
had seen five sovereigns reign in England. He was two years old when 
George HI. died, at twelve he attended the funeral of George IV., and at 
eighteen he was a pallbearer at the coffin of William IV. 

Lastly, he had seen the death of his cousin. Queen Victoria, and the acces- 
sion of her son. 

Lord SaHsbury let fall one observation that riveted attention. He said 
solemnly in testifying to the Queen's sagacity and foresight that no Minister 
had ever differed with her on any important point of policy but he lived to 
regret it. 



152 LORD SALISBURY'S NOBLE TRIBUTE. 

As the House dispersed every one was asking if he could have been refer- 
ring to his having overborne the Queen's judgment about the South African 
war. 

LORD SALISBURY'S NOBLE TRIBUTE TO VICTORIA. 

Lord Salisbury moved the reply to the King's message in a speech full of 
emotion. 

"In performing the saddest duty that has ever fallen to me, I am only 
echoing accents of sorrov^, deeper than I have ever known, of this nation, 
which has been called forth by the singular loss which, under the dispensa- 
tion of Providence, the people have suffered, and their admiration of the 
glorious reign and splendid character of the sovereign they have lost. 

"Being a constitutional monarch, with restricted powers, she reigned by 
sheer force of character, by the lovableness of her disposition, and by her 
hold on the hearts of her subjects. 

"The example which she set of governing by love and esteem never will 
be forgotten, nor how much she assisted in the elevation of her people by 
their simple contemplation of her brilliant qualities as a wife, mother, and 
woman. 

"Her wonderful ability of observing with absolute strictness the limits 
of her powers as a constitutional sovereign and at the same time maintaining 
steady and persistent influence over the actions of her Ministers inspires the 
greatest admiration. 

"She always maintained a rigorous supervision over public affairs, giving 
her Ministers the benefit of her advice and warning them of dangers. 

"No Minister could disregard her views or press her to disregard them 
without feeling he had incurred a great danger. She brought the country 
peacefully through a great change from old to new England. 

"She possessed extraordinary knowledge of what people would think. I 
have always said that when I knew what the Queen thought I knew for a cer- 
tainty what her subjects would think, especially the middle classes. 

"The King comes to the throne with the one great advantage of having 



OTHER TRIBUTES PAID. 155 

before him the greatest example possible. He has been familiar for a gener- 
ation with political and social life, 

"He enjoys enormous popularity, and is almost as much beloved in for- 
eign courts and countries. Congratulations can be tendered him with earnest 
sincerity and in the belief that he will adorn the throne and be no unworthy 
successor of the Queen." 

OTHER TRIBUTES PAID. 

Lord Kimberley said he desired to echo every word of the noble Marquis. 

His access to the sovereign dated back to an even earlier period than the 
Marquis. He had always been struck with the extraordinary consideration 
and kindness which marked Her Majesty's conduct towards all who came in 
contact with her. He was simply amazed at the sound, real knowledge she 
possessed of all important affairs. 

The Archbishop of Canterbury said the Queen's influence as a truly 
religious woman was far greater than anything exercised by the wisest 
statesman or cleverest administrator. 



CHAPTER VII. 

Edward VII., King of Great Britain and Ireland and Emperor of India — His 
Personality — Well Fitted to Assume the Duties of Sovereign — His Ability 
Is Unquestioned — Familiar With Many of the Details of Government and 
Administration — A Favorite With All Classes of His Subjects. 

EDWARD VII., late Prince of Wales, and now the ruler, as King of 
Great Britain and Ireland and Emperor of India, of more people than 
any monarch (except the late Queen and Empress, his mother) who 
ever sat upon an earthly throne, is peculiarly well fitted to assume the duties 
of the exalted position to which he has succeeded. 

It is true that, to the world in general, much more is known of his person- 
ality than his political views, or his real ability and talents. With a tact and 
delicacy unprecedented in the history of the heirs apparent to the British 
throne, the new King and Emperor, while Prince of Wales, so carefully 
avoided giving expression of his political views that not even his most intimate 
friends and lifelong associates were able to speak about them with any degree 
of certainty when he ascended the throne. 

The new King is keenly interested in both domestic and foreign politics, 
a fact which every one knows. There were few more frequent and attentive 
listeners to the debates in Parliament. But whether he leans toward the Con- 
servatives or toward the Liberals, whether he favors the Nationalist cause 
in Ireland or that of the Orangemen ; whether he prefers an understanding 
with France to one with Germany, or vice versa, no one can say. 

Opinions and preference he must have. But while the heir apparent to 
the throne he never uttered a word which could furnish any positive indication 
of his personal feelings upon any of these subjects — save one. 

That one is his belief in an understanding between his Empire and the 
United States. And he may be relied upon, therefore, to continue the course 
pursued by his mother from the outset of her reign, which was the develop- 

156 



EDWARD VII. 157 

ment of sentiments of friendship and of unity between the two great Enghsh- 
speaking nations, who are bound together by ties of kinsmanship, by com- 
munity of speech, of jurisprudence, and of character — that is to say, by ties far 
more lasting than mere treaties, made to be broken. 

From the time of his marriage the new King and Emperor was, as heir 
apparent, the leading figure in English society, and to a great extent its arbiter, 
his mother, the Queen, delegating to him what may be described as the social 
duties and prerogatives of the Crown. Possessed of unrivaled and unfailing 
tact, an extremely level head, and an altogether practical and unicjue knowl- 
edge of the world, the Prince's position endowed him with a social power 
superior to that enjoyed by any continental sovereign. 

The new King and Emperor, while the Prince of Wales, was able to 
socially make or mar any man or woman in England, without regard to their 
nationality, to an extent which not even the autocrat of all the Russias could 
equal. This power the Prince administered both wisely and well, and, above 
all, used it to demonstrate in a marked degree the extent to which he shared 
his late mother's sentiments of deep and profound friendship towards the 
United States by welcoming into English society the people of this 
country. 

The English people are indebted to their new King for many reforms, 
brought about by him in his role as social arbiter, and which afford an excel- 
lent indication of his character. It is, thanks to him, for instance, that hard 
drinking and coarseness of language have gone out of fashion. 

And if a higher tone of morality and a greater sense of propriety now 
prevail than in the earlier half of the last century, it is in a great measure due 
to the unobtrusive but excellent care which the new King takes to keep out 
of society those who have forfeited their rights to remain within its pale. He 
is as ready as any other votary of pleasure to meet them in the sphere to which 
they have descended and to treat them there with kindness and consideration, 
but he will not tolerate their presence in houses that are respectable, and takes 
quiet means to eliminate them therefrom. 

It is due to him also that all the ill-feeling towards the Jewish race has 
now disappeared, and the Hebrews, who, in the earlier days of the Victorian 



158 EDWARD VII. 

era, were not admitted to the full rights and privileges of ordinary citizenship, 
are now occupying seats in the House of Lords and in the front rank of the 
most smart, aristocratic and exclusive circles of English society. 

One of the most pleasing traits of this genial King is his singularly happy 
home life. He has been the object of many stories of a more or less slanderous 
nature, which he has considered to be beneath his dignity to deny or refute. 
But he has done well to treat them with silent contempt. For it is only neces- 
sary to see the Prince among his family at Sandringham, and to observe the 
affection with which his nephews and nieces speak of "Uncle Bertie," to realize 
that he has been a much slandered man. 

Albert Edward, now Edward VII., who has just ascended the British 
throne, was born on November 9th, 1841, at Buckingham Palace, in London. 
As the oldest son of the sovereign he became, at the moment of his birth, the 
Duke of Cornwall, and before he was four weeks old he was created Prince of 
Wales and Earl of Chester by royal patent. As Duke of Cornwall he became 
entitled to revenues amounting to £60,000. By right of inheritance the young 
Prince also became Duke of Rothesay and Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 
Prince of Saxony, Earl of Carrick, Earl of Dublin, and Baron Renfrew, and 
he also has the title of Lord of the Isles. 

The Prince was baptized on January 25th, 1842, in St. George's Chapel, 
Windsor. The ceremony was conducted with great splendor. The sponsors 
were the King of Prussia, the Duchess of Saxe-Coburg, represented by the 
Duchess of Kent, the Duke of Cambridge, the young Duchess of Saxe-Coburg, 
Queen Victoria's sister-in-law, represented by the Duchess of Cambridge, 
Princess Sophia, represented by the Princess Augusta of Cambridge, and 
Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg. 

The little Prince was named Albert after his father, and Edward after his 
grandfather, the Duke of Kent. 

During the first few years of the little Prince's life the public did not have 
any opportunity to see much of him. The people, nevertheless, took great 
interest in the Prince, and his pictures were in great demand. Before he was 
eighteen months old he had sat for his portrait several times. The Prince 
received his first training from Lady Lyttleton, Mrs. Gladstone's sister, who 



M 



EDWARD VII . 159 

filled the post of governess to the royal children until the future King was 
six years old. 

In 1848 the Prince was intrusted to his first tutor, the Rev. Henry Mildred 
Birch. In the summer of the same year he visited Ireland for the first time, 
where he was received with great enthusiasm. He made his first ofiicial 
appearance in London on October 30th, 1849. 

The Queen was to be present at the opening of the Coal Exchange, but 
was prevented because she had the chicken pox. For that reason it was 
arranged that the Prince of Wales and the Princess Royal should represent 
their mother. TwO' years later the Prince assisted at the opening of the great 
exhibition of 185 1. In the same year the Rev. Mr. Birch retired from his 
position as tutor. Frederick W. Gibbs was appointed and remained with the 
Prince until 1858. 

It was on the day when the Prince for the first time accompanied the 
Queen to the House of Lords that the address of the two Houses of Parlia- 
ment in answer to the Queen's message announcing the beginning of hostili- 
ties in the Crimean war was presented. The worst of the war was over when 
the Prince and the Princess Royal (now Dowager Empress of Germany), 
accompanied by their parents, visited Paris in August, 1855. 

When the Prince was fourteen he started on an incognito^ walking tour 
through the west of England, accompanied by Mr. Gibbs and Colonel Caven- 
dish. Then he spent a short time in Germany, mostly at Koenigswinter on the 
Rhine. 

The Prince was confirmed in April, 1858, and on November 9 of the same 
year he attained his eighteenth year. On the same day he became a Colonel in 
the army, and received the Order of the Garter, while Colonel Bruce became 
his governor. The time of the Prince was divided between diligent studies 
and travels on the Continent. The Prince traveled incognito as Baron Ren- 
frew, and after his return took up a course of studies at Edinburg. 

In i860 the Prince undertook his first extensive voyage. It was decided 
that he should visit Canada, and return by way of the United States. He 
arrived at St. Johns, N. F., on July 24th, i860, and was received with royal 



160 EDWARD VII. 

honors. On his way West he visited the Niagara Falls, and witnessed the feat 
of Blondin, who walked over the falls on a rope. 

The Prince crossed to the United States on the night of September 20th, 
i860. Though he traveled under the name of Baron Renfrew, his coming 
was heralded by the press, and everywhere the Prince was the subject of the 
most intense popular interest. Over 50,000 people came out to meet him in 
Chicago. The Prince went to Dwight Station, in the State of Illinois, not far 
south of Chicago, for a day's shooting. Thence he continued his trip, going- 
to St. Louis, and thence to Washington, the capital of the United States, 
where he arrived on October 30th. He was introduced to President Buchanan 
and stayed at the White House for five days. 

He paid a visit to the tomb of Washington at Mount Vernon, then went 
to Richmond, Va., which was, shortly afterwards, the capital of the Southern 
Confederacy, and visited Philadelphia, and then New York, where he was 
entertained in the most brilliant manner. After five days in New York the 
Prince went to Albany and Boston. He also visited Mount Auburn, where 
he planted two trees. Portland, Me., was the last place in the United States 
to receive a visit. From there he sailed back to England. 

In 1 86 1 the Prince became an undergraduate of Trinity College, Cam- 
bridge, and continued his studies to the end of the term. During the long 
vacation he did military duty at the Curragh. During the fall he traveled on 
the Continent, but the death of his father caused his return to England. In 
the following year he visited Egypt and the Holy Land. 

On September 9th, 1862, the Prince of Wales was formally betrothed to 

Princess Alexandra of Denmark, whom he had seen for the first time on the 

occasion of his visit in 1861. 

The wedding ceremony took place in St. George's Chap€l, Windsor, on 

March loth, 1863, a few weeks after he had taken the oath as a Peer of the 

Realm. The Prince and his wife established themselves at Sandringham with 

an income of about £100,000 a year. Their first child, Albert Victor, Duke of 

Clarence, who died in 1892, was born in 1864. 

Five years after their marriage the Prince and the Princess paid a visit 

to Ireland. In 1868, after the birth of the fourth child, the Princess Victoria, 



GRAND MASTER OF MASONS IN ENGLAND. 161 

the Prince and the Princess of Wales visited the continent together, and later 
made an extensive tour of the East, including Egypt and Palestine. They 
returned through Russia. 

In 1875 the Prince of Wales made his great tour through India, and 
everywhere he was received with honors. After visiting all the great cities 
of India the Prince and his party returned by way of the Suez Canal, stopping 
five days in Egypt. From 1876 to 1887 the Prince lived quietly and traveled 
but little. 

The silver wedding of the Prince and Princess on March loth, 1888, was 
celebrated in a quiet way, owing to the death of Emperor William I. of Ger- 
many. In the following year Princess Louise, the oldest daughter of the 
Prince of Wales, was married to- the Duke of Fife. 

On July 6th, 1893, ^^^ marriage of the Duke of York with Princess May 
of Teck was celebrated at the Royal Chapel, St. Tames'. The Duke of York, 
the second son of the new King and Queen, is now heir apparent to the 
throne. The Emperor of Russia and the King and Queen of Denmark were 
present at the ceremony. 

In 1894 the marriage of Princess Maud of Wales to Prince Charles of 
Denmark took place. 

GRAND MASTER OF MASONS IN ENGLAND. 

The Prince was elected Grand Master of the Free Masons in England, 
in succession to the Marquis of Ripon, in 1874, and in April, 1875, was admit- 
ted to the office at a lodge held in the Albert Hall. In May, 1875, he was 
installed at the Free Masons' Hall as first principal of the Royal Arch Free 
Masons. 

In 1877 the Prince reviewed 30,000 volunteers in Hyde Park. He was 
appointed president of the British Commissioners at the Paris Exposition 
of 1878, in which he took great interest. He attended the court festivities 
held in Berlin in March, 1883, to celebrate the silver wedding of the Crown 
Prince of Germany with the Princess Royal of England. 

In May, 1891, the Prince was made a grandfather by the birth of the 
Duchess of Fife's daughter. In the summers of 1893 and 1894 he raced his 



162 PRINCE ALBERT EDWARD IN 1870. 

yacht, the Britannic, in most of the chief regattas round the coast and secured 
many victories. 

In 1894 he attended the wedding of Princess Victoria Melita at Coburg, 
the marriage of the Czar's daughter at St. Petersburg, and the Welsh Eis- 
teddfod, at which the Princess was admitted a bard. 

In the autumn of the same year he joined the Russian imperial family 
on the occasion of the death of the Czar. In 1896 he won most of the principal 
turf races, securing the Derby at Epsom, with his horse Persimmon, and was 
installed as Chancellor of the University of Wales. The following month he 
attended the marriage at Buckingham Palace of his second daughter, Maud, 
to Prince Charles of Denmark. 

The Prince took a prominent part in the Queen's diamond jubilee in 1897, 
and attended Divine service at St. Paul's Cathedral June 20, when every 
royal personage in London was present. The following day he was appointed 
great master and principal knight. Grand Cross of the Bath. 

In July, 1898, while on a visit to Baron Ferdinand de Rothschild, at 
Waddeston Manor, the Prince slipped on the stairs and fell, fracturing his 
kneecap. An operation was fortunately resisted, and by prolonged rest an 
almost complete cure was effected. 

PRINCE ALBERT EDWARD IN 1870. 

The following is a picture drawn of Prince Albert Edward in 1870, nearly 
thirty-one years before his accession to the throne. It was written by one 
of the most brilliant men in London : 

"Those who saw the Prince of Wales as a slender, fair-haired, rather 
graceful youth would surely fail to recognize him in the heavy, stolid, pre- 
maturely bald man of to-day. It would not be easy to see in any assembly 
a more stupid-looking man. On horseback he shows to best advantage. He 
rides well, and the pleasure he takes in riding lends something of animation 
to his usually inexpressive face. But when his features lapse into their habit- 
ual condition of indolent, good-natured repose, all light of intellect seems to 
have been banished. The outline of the head and face, and the general expres- 



PRINCE ALBERT EDWARD IN 1870. 163 

sion, seem to me of late to be growing every day more and more like the head 
and face of George III. 

"To the eyes of the cynic or satirical the Prince shows to the greatest 
advantage when he sits in his box late at night at rather heavy, classic opera, 
or has to endure a long succession of speeches at a formal public dinner. 
Then the heavy head drops, the heavy jaws hang, the languid eyes close, the 
Prince sinks into a doze. Loyalty itself can see nothing dignified nor kingly 
in him then. I have watched him thus as he sat in his box at some heavy 
performance of Italian opera, and have thought he might remind an irrever- 
ent observer of Pickwick's immortal fat boy. 

"This, then, is the character which the son of the Queen bears in the 
estimation of the vast majority of his mother's subjects. Almost any and 
every one you meet in London will tell you, as something beyond doubt, that 
the Prince of Wales is dull, stingy, coarse and profligate. As for the anec- 
dotes which are told of his habits and tastes by the artists and officials of 
the theaters which he frequents, I might fairly leave them out of the question, 
because most of them that I have heard seem to me improbable. They have, 
nevertheless, a certain value in helping us to a sort of historical estimate. If 
the Prince of Wales is not a man of dissipated habits, then a whole watchful 
nation has come, after years of observation, to a conclusion at once unanimous 
and erroneous. What is to be the effect upon England of the reign of the 
Prince of Wales ? Will England and her statesmen endure the rule of a profli- 
gate sovereign?" 

How the Prince changed in after life may be inferred from the following 
sketch, "by an ex-diplomat," published in 1895 : 

"The Prince is no saint, and is the last person in the world to wish to be 
set up on a pinnacle as such. He is subject to exactly the same weaknesses, 
frailties and errors of one kind and another as ordinary mortals, and gives 
way to them occasionally. That he does not do so more frequently is a 
subject for congratulation, for certainly no man living is exposed to greater 
temptations. His morals are neither better nor worse than those of the major- 
ity of his countrymen, and it is precisely this fact that endears him to them. 
The sympathy thus established between Prince and people contrasts strongly 



164 THE RULER OF ENGLISH SOCIETY 

with the unpopularity of his father, whose blameless behavior was generally 
regarded by the English as a reflection on their own conduct, and led to his 
being set down as a prig. 

HIS INFLUENCE DUE TO HIS TACT. 

"It is not, therefore, to any moral perfection that the Prince is indebted 
for the immense influence which he exercises, not alone in his mother's domin- 
ions, but throughout the world — an influence immeasurably greater than that 
of many a king or emperor. Nor yet is it due to superiority of education and 
intellect, the Prince being of only average rank in those respects. Neither 
is it in any way attributable to the voice, which, as heir to the British throne, 
he might reasonably be expected to enjoy in the administration of his country's 
government. For his mother's jealousy prevents him from taking any active 
part in the affairs of state. No; the explanation of the enormous influence 
that he commands is to be found in his tact. No other Prince of the blood 
possesses this quality to such a superlative degree. 

"It was by the exercise of tact that he once achieved for England, within 
the short space of three weeks, a victory in Russia which half a century of 
the most elaborate diplomacy and statecraft had failed to accomplish. It 
was by dint of tact that he brought about a reconciliation of the Emperor 
William with his widowed mother, the Prince's sister, and dispelled that 
intense animosity toward England which characterized the outset of the 
young Kaiser's reign. To the same agency the British government is indebted 
for the smoothing over of its many differences with France. So happy has 
he shown himself in his dealings with this most sensitive and excitable nation 
that he can boast of a popularity on the banks of the Seine superior to that 
of almost any French statesman or politician. 

THE RULER OF ENGLISH SOCIETY. 

"But most of all has his tact been apparent in his management and direc- 
tion of English society, which he rules with a rod of steel concealed in a sheath 
of velvet. He guides it as he lists, but slowly by tact and experience; and 
no prejudice, no preconceived ideas or theories are permitted to stand in the 



THE RULER OF ENGLISH SOCIETY. 165 

light of his decrees. For instance, it is thanks to him, and to him alone, that 
all the ill feeling towards the Jewish race has disappeared, and that Hebrews 
— who in the early days of the Victorian era were not admitted to the full 
rights and privileges of ordinary citizenship — are now to be found occupying 
seats in the House of Lords, on the bench of the Supreme Court or Judicature, 
and in the very front rank of the most smart, aristocratic and exclusive circles 
of society. 

"Probably the most striking illustration of the Prince's tact is to be found 
in the absolute ignorance which prevails, even among his most intimate 
friends and associates, concerning his political opinions. He has always 
manifested just as much consideration and regard for Gladstone as for Lord 
Salisbury. He does not incline to the Tories any more than he does to the 
Liberals, and neither can claim him as a partisan. Only those who are 
acquainted with the violence of passions in English politics, and can recall the 
altogether unconstitutional partisanship of the various sons of George HL 
can realize the degree of tact which the Prince must have displayed for all 
these years to keep' his countrymen in such absolute ignorance concerning 
his political views. 

"Perhaps the only particular in which the Prince does not display tact 
is in the selection of his associates. He is the most easily bored man under 
the sun, and anyone like the late Sir James Mackenzie, who started in life a hat- 
ter, or Reuben Sassoon, the Parsee, who possesses the means of dispelling his 
ennui, is welcome at Marlborough House and Sandringham. Provided people 
succeed in amusing him, he remains indifferent to their antecedents, their prin- 
ciples and their character. Consequently he is occasionally seen in company 
with persons who are in every sense of the word unfit to associate with him." 

Somewhat in the same line is the following passage from an article written 
in 1 89 1 by Lady William Lermox : 

"The Prince has the faculty of never forgetting anybody once seen. He 
also remembers all sorts of matters connected with individuals after having 
once heard them, and, besides that, he is so quick and keen that nothing escapes 
his notice, even to the smallest detail. Woe be to the man, of whatever rank, 
and wearing whatever official dress, if a single stripe or button is not exactly 



166 THE FIRST SIX EDWARDS. 

as it should be when the wearer comes before the Prince. In a second the 
weak point in the harness is detected by that clear, blue eye, and the error 
has to be remedied. 

"This quickness of perception, added to a great readiness in conversation, 
makes him pleasant to meet, as he always has the right thing to say to the 
person he is talking to. Nothing can be more gracious than the way in which 
he receives his guests. For each one he appears to have a special welcome, 
and the smile and hearty shake of the hand must be seen and felt to be appre- 
ciated." 

THE FIRST SIX EDWARDS. 

Six Edwards have preceded the present ruler. The second of the name, 
and the first Prince of Wales, the youthful Edward V., was put to death in 
the Tower of London by his uncle, the Duke of Gloucester, afterward Richard 
III., and so had no chance to prove his worth. His father, however, was 
strong, though no saint, and the child gave promise of being a wise king. 
Here is something about the other Edwards: 

Edward I., surnamed "Longshanks," was born at Westminster in 1239. 
He was engaged in the seventh crusade, and was returning from the Holy 
Land when he heard of his accession to the throne. He banished the Jews 
from England and defeated the Scots under Wallace in 1298. 

Edward II. was the fourth son of Edward I. In consequence of his incom- 
petence the government was intrusted by the barons to twenty-one ordainers. 
He was imprisoned in Berkeley Castle and murdered at the instance of his 
Queen, Isabella. 

Edward III. was the son of Edward II. and Isabella of France. He 
imprisoned the queen-mother and seized the reins of government. He involved 
England in the one hundred years' war with France. His reign was signalized 
by several visits of the "black death." The "Black Prince" of Poictiers and 
Cressy glory was his son. 

Edward IV. was the son of Richard, Duke of York, and Cecily Neville, 
daughter of the Earl of Westmoreland. He played a prominent part in the 
struggle between the Houses of York and Lancaster for the throne. 



THE HEIR APPARENT TO THE THRONE. 167 

Edward V. was born in Westminster Abbey November 2, 1470. He was 
King of England from April to June, 1483, but was imprisoned in London 
Tower by his uncle, Richard, Duke of Gloucester, by whom he and his brother 
were secretly put to death. 

Edward VI. was the son of Henry VHI. by his third queen, Jane Seymour, 
and succeeded to the throne when but nine years of age, under the regency of 
his uncle, the Duke of Somerset, who was supplanted by the Duke of North- 
umberland. During his reign occurred the publication of the forty-two articles 
of religion and the introduction of the book of common prayer. He was 
induced by the Duke of Northumberland to assign the throne tO' Lady Jane 
Grey to the exclusion of Elizabeth and Mary, but the latter succeeded her 
brother after he had been the (nominal) head of the Kingdom six years. 

THE HEIR APPARENT TO THE THRONE. 

The new heir apparent to England's throne. Prince George Frederick 
Ernest Albert, Duke of York, is indebted to death for the beautiful wife, who 
is next in line as British Queen, she having been the fiancee of his brother, 
the Duke of Clarence, when he died. 

The Duke of York, second son of King Edward, was bom at Marlbor- 
ough House on June 3rd, 1865. His brother, the Duke of Clarence, was 
seventeen months older, and the royal children passed their boyhood days 
together. 

They entered the navy as cadets on June 5th, 1877, spending two years on 
the Britannia. In 1879 they joined the Bacchante under the command of the 
Earl of Clanwilliam. 

In their cruise to the Mediterranean and subsequently to the West Indies 
the two Princes underwent practically the same hardships as those borne by 
the other cadets, being relieved only from the middle watch. 

The ship anchored in the Barbadoes for Christmas, 1879, and the two 
Princes passed the day ashore, receiving a cordial reception from the islanders. 
At Bermuda they laid the foundation stone for the sailors' home. 

Subsequently the Bacchante was attached to the channel fleet, going there- 
from again to Lord Clanwilliam at Vigo. In January, 1880, Prince George 



1(38 • BECAME HEIR PRESUMPTIVE IN 1892. 

was promoted midshipman. In this capacity he crossed the equator, sub- 
mitting to the usual hazing by Neptune, Lord of the Seas, good naturedly. 

On this cruise the Bacchante visited the Canaries, the Falklands, Simon's 
Bay, Montevideo and AustraHa, where Prince George remained several 
months. The Bacchante went from AustraHa to China and returned to the 
Mediterranean by way of Singapore and the Suez Canal. 

A trip from Jaffa through Palestine completed the tour. 

PROMOTIONS IN THE NAVY. 

Prince George was made sub-lieutenant in 1884 and joined H. M. S. 
Canada on the North American station. In October of the following year he 
became a full lieutenant. Attached successively to various ships, he served 
with H. M. S. Dreadnaught and H. M. S. Alexandra, flagship of the Medit- 
erranean Squadron, of which his deceased uncle, the Duke of Edinburgh, 
was then Commander-in-Chief. 

In 1889 he was presented with his first command, Torpedo Boat No. 79, 
during the naval maneuvers. While in charge of this craft he gave valiant 
service to a vessel in distress. 

On May 6th, 1890, he commissioned the first-class gunboat Thrush and 
spent a year therein on the North American station, visiting Canada and 
the West Indies. Upon his return to England in 1891 he was promoted Com- 
mander. 

His latest command was H. M. S. Crescent, in which, during 1898, he 
visited many seaport towns of Ireland and England. 

BECAME HEIR PRESUMPTIVE IN 1892. 

Prince George was created Duke of York, Earl of Inverness, and Baron 
Killarney in 1892. During this year he became heir presumptive to the 
throne through the death of the Duke of Clarence. In July, 1895, Prince 
George presided at the Sixth International Geographical Congress, held at 
the Imperial Institute. 

The Prince holds the Grand Cross of the Sultan of Turkey and the Grand 
Cross of the Orders of the Black and Red Eagle of Germany. He is Colonel 



MARRIED TO THE PRINCESS MAY. 169 

of the Royal Sussex Hussars, Yeomanry Cavalry, and Colonel of the Third 
Middlesex Artillery Volunteers. 

In 1894 he was elected an Elder Brother and Master of the Corporation 
of Trinity House. He also is Bencher of Lincoln's Inn, LL. D. of Cam- 
bridge, a Fellow of the Royal Society, and in March, 1899, succeeded the 
Duke of Argyll as President of the Royal Humane Society. 

Prior to the death of his brother, the Duke of Clarence, Prince George, 
so it was alleged, contracted a morganatic marriage with the daughter of 
Admiral Seymour, the commander of the naval forces which attempted to 
relieve the beleaguered legations in Pekin during the summer of 1900. The 
marriage occurred without the sanction of his parents and under the English 
law was invalid. 

All the documents containing any reference thereto were destroyed, and 
neither Admiral Seymour nor his daughter ever made any reference thereto, 
the subsequent sudden advancement of the Admiral being attributed to the 
discretion he had manifested in the matter. 

MARRIED TO THE PRINCESS MAY. 

On the death of his brother, who was engaged to Princess May of Teck, 
rumors connecting the name of Prince George and the Princess became preva- 
lent. It seemed to be the wish of the English people that Prince George and 
Princess May, both great favorites, should marry. 

The then Princess of Wales objected to the marriage, although she had 
given her consent to an alliance between her oldest son, the Duke of Clarence, 
and Princess May. 

Queen Victoria became as sincere an advocate of the marriage as the 
people, and one day the Princess of Wales was seen in the Park with Prin- 
cess May. 

Prior to the announcement of the espousal of Princess May by Prince 
George the Archbishop of Canterbury proclaimed from the steps of the Chapel 
Royal that there was no ecclesiastical or legal obstacle to the union. 

The marriage was celebrated on July 6th, 1893, in the Chapel Royal, St. 
James'. The ceremony was brilliant, being attended by all the members of 



170 THE UNHAPPY DUKE OF CLARENCE. 

the royal family, the Emperor of Russia, then Czarowitz, and the King and 
Queen of Denmark. 

Three children were born as the result of the union, two boys and one 
girl. The eldest, heir presumptive to the throne, was born on June 23rd, 1894, 
and was christened after the patron saints of the islands and his grandfather, 
Edward Albert Christian George Andrew Patrick David. A second son, 
Prince Albert, was born in 1895, and a daughter, Princess Victoria, in 1897. 

Although he always has led an active life the health of Prince George is 
still not to be good. Having stepped into the shoes of his brother as heir 
presumptive to the throne he soon was called upon to take the position of his 
father in the royal courtesies and as royal representative, the many duties 
devolving upon his father having forced him to yield to the younger man. 

Prince George and Princess May received permission from the Queen in 
1900 to visit Australia, where the Prince expected to preside at the opening 
of the Parliament of the Federated Colonies. They were to visit Canada on 
their return, and perhaps make a tour of the United States, but the South 
African difficulties and the ill health of the Queen compelled a postponement 
of the trip. 

THE UNHAPPY DUKE OF CLARENCE. 

The Duke of Clarence, eldest son of King Edward and heir to the throne, 
was almost a happy bridegroom, when all his hopes went out in a premature 
death. 

Born on January 8th, 1864, only five years after the mutiny, at his bap- 
tism he received the name of Albert Victor Christian Edward. The manner 
of his education in early boyhood was quite methodical. Educated at home 
till his thirteenth year, he entered the navy in 1877. He passed two years, 
as is the rule, on board H. M. S. Britannia at Dartmouth, under the care of 
Captain Henry Fairfax, R. N. C. B. 

In July, 1879, lie went to sea in H. M. S. Bacchante, and visited the 
West Indies. He then visited successively Vigo, Madeira, St. Vincent, Monte- 
video and the Falkland Islands. Whether an idle onlooker at those islands 
or gathering stores of knowledge is nowhere disclosed in the various sketches 



:*"■ 'ir--:K 




>»". 






' (t 



u 

< 

< 

I— t 

u 
m 

H 



O 

o 
o 

I— I 

Q 

w 

PQ 

W 

H 



THE UNHAPPY DUKE OF CLARENCE. 173 

of his life. He was a traveler, from island to island, from continent to con- 
tinent. He was of a happy disposition and well liked by all. 

He visited Australia, he went to Fiji, Japan, China, Singapore, Colombo 
and Suez, and then went to England in the summer of 1882 by way of Egypt 
and the Holy Land. With the exception of India, His Royal Highness 
visited nearly all the places worth seeing before 1882. 

In 1883 he became an undergraduate of Trinity College, Cambridge, con- 
tinuing his studies during the long vacation at the University of Heidelberg. 
He was then transferred to Aldershot to study military science. His Royal 
Highness was a good and keen sportsman. 

The Duke of Clarence was never regarded as a man of much weight. 
Society thought him a fop, and as a high collar was an indispensable part of 
his make-up, he was mercilessly nicknamed ''Collars and Cuffs." He was 
never so much in the public eye nor in the public sympathy as he was when 
he became the betrothed of Princess Mary of Teck. 

The death of the Duke of Clarence, which occurred January 14th, 1892, 
excited the deepest sympathy throughout Great Britain, and the obsequies 
were the saddest and most solemn that had been seen in many years. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

England's New Queen — Beautiful Descendant of the Old Viking Kings and 
Conquerors of the North — Marriage With the Prince of Wales the Result 
of a Genuine Love Match — Greatly Beloved by the People of England. 

ENGLAND'S new Queen, the gracious Consort of His Royal and Im- 
perial Majesty, Edward VII., was the Princess Alexandra Caroline 
Marie Charlotte Louise Julie, the oldest daughter of King Christian IX. 
of Denmark and Queen Louise, a former Princess of Hesse-Cassel. Queen 
Alexandra was born at Copenhagen on December ist, 1844. She spent her 
youth happily under the most pleasant surroundings and was a great favorite. 
She received an excellent education and was particularly devoted to music. 

Her first informal meeting with the then Prince of Wales, her future hus- 
band, occurred in 1861. While the Prince was traveling in Germany he 
stopped at Worms, and one day he visited the old cathedral, accompanied by 
his tutor. It happened that at the same time Princess Alexandra and her 
father also visited the cathedral. 

The young Prince was greatly impressed by the beauty of the Princess, 
and when he met her again at Heidelberg he seemed only too glad to renew 
the acquaintance. 

The third meeting occurred during a short visit of the Prince to his cousin, 
the King of Belgium. King Leopold himself arranged the preliminaries of 
the marriage, and while the Prince and the Princess were guests at the royal 
castle at Laeken Queen Victoria gave her formal consent to the betrothal. 

Princess Alexandra had visited England as a child to make the acquain- 
tance of her great-aunt, the Duchess of Cambridge, but it was at Laeken that 
she was presented to her future mother-in-law. Queen Victoria. 

The engagement was not announced officially till nearly six months later, 
when the Prince of Wales became of age. The Danish people were extremely 
pleased and presented the Princess a dowry of one hundred thousand crowns. 

Accompanied by her father and mother, the Princess left Denmark on 

174 



BOTH FASCINATING AND POPULAR. 175 

February 26 and reached Cologne on March 2. There she received the first 
greetings of her future husband's people, the British residents. 

The whole party was also royally entertained at Brussels by the Court of 
Flanders, and at Flushing they found a squadron of British men-of-war to 
escort the royal yacht. At Gravesend she was met by the Prince of Wales 
and escorted to London. The procession through that city was a perfect 
triumphal march. 

The marriage of the Prince of Wales and the Princess Alexandra was the 
first royal wedding which had been celebrated in St. George's Chapel since 
that of Henry I. in 1122. Princess Alexandra was given away by her father. 
She wore a magnificent wedding dress and gorgeous jewels, which had been 
presented to her by the corporation of London, by the groom, and the mem- 
bers of the royal family. 

While Princess of Wales, the new Queen was always a great favorite of 
the people, and during her visits in the different parts of the United King- 
dom always met an enthusiastic welcome. 

She possesses the greatest tact, is of a sweet and endearing disposition, 
has always shown much interest in the welfare of the people over whom her 
husband has been called to reign, and there has never been an instance in the 
history of the British Empire where a Queen has entered upon her duties 
under more favorable auspices than Alexandra. 

BOTH FASCINATING AND POPULAR. 

Queen Alexandra is deservedly one of the most fascinating and popular 
women in the whole of her husband's vast dominions, which embrace one- 
quarter of the entire population of the known world. True, there are many 
women in English society who are infinitely more beautiful, whose figures 
conform far more closely to the ideal of the artist, and, above all, there are 
many who possess a greater degree of brilliancy, of dash, and of wit. 

Notwithstanding all of this, wherever the gracious woman, who has now 
become Queen, appeared, not only did she become the cynosure of all eyes, 
but more than that. The loveliness of every other woman present seemed to 



17G SHE CLUNG TO PAST FASHIONS. 

pale; and this, too, in spite oi the fact that she is the grandmother of six 
little ones, and nearer sixty years of age than fifty. 

True, she remains amazingly youthful in appearance, thanks not so much 
to those devices known as "making up," as to those judicious cares that are 
entirely legitimate. For instance, daily massage was employed to help 
nature in warding of¥ wrinkles from the face, while the elasticity and 
elegance of the figure were retained by means of exercise, moderation, and 
diet to the same phenomenal degree as in the case of the late Empress of 
Austria at the time of her assassination. 

SHE CLUNG TO PAST FASHIONS. 

Her hair has always been dressed in precisely the same quiet and char- 
acteristic manner of twenty-five years ago, the head retains the same dainty 
poise of a neck so graceful that it conveys the impression of a slender stalk 
supporting a flower, while the eyes assuredly have neither dimmed nor 
changed, flashing as in days of yore with fun or mischief or else sweetly 
appealing in that sort of pathetic manner peculiar to people who are hard 
of hearing. 

But it is not this that makes the new Queen of England so fascinating— 
that renders her so much more attractive than people of immeasurably 
superior beauty. Nor can it be described as magnetism. For magnetism 
implies something that is violent and against which one would be inclined 

to resist. 

It is the sweet, gracious, and kindly manner that converts every man 
who sets his eyes upon her into her sworn admirer, and that even disarms the 
jealousy of women, transforming them into her devoted friends. 

It was sometimes alleged that the consort of Great Britain's nevv^ King 
was deficient in cleverness. In fact, it was stated in print — manifestly by 
people who had never been brought within the radius of her charms — that 
she was actually dull. 

True, she is not intellectual in the sense of her sister-in-law. Empress 
Frederick of Germany, and it would be difficult to imagine her in the role 
of a politician. 



NEVER MADE A MISTAKE. 177 

But from the time of her marriage, eight and thirty years ago, she Hved 
almost unceasingly exposed to that full glare of publicity which beats upon 
the thrones, occupying by reason of the seclusion of Queen Victoria the role 
of first lady in the land, at any rate in a social sense. 

NEVER MADE A MISTAKE. 

And throughout that entire period she did not make one single mistake. 
She has known in her own friendly and calm manner the people whom it 
was desirable that she should know. She always steered clear of all those 
acquaintances who might have given rise to ill-natured comment. She 
never lost her head, was never guilty of anything that could be construed as 
partaking of the nature of a "faux pas," and by means of the atmosphere of 
ideal refinement which she diffused around her kept within bounds the ten- 
dency of modern society to exuberance and vulgarity, and, perfect in tact, 
has presented through her married life a picture of the most unruffled 
domestic happiness. 

Finally, in an age where calumny was so rife and all-prevalent that not 
even an angel descended from heaven would be permitted to retain the 
celestial garments unsullied and the wings unruffled, no breath of scandal 
ever tarnished even for a fleeting moment the fair name of England's new 
Queen. Surely when one considers all the temptations of one kind and 
another to which a woman in the position of this one, who has until now 
borne the title of Princess of Wales, was exposed, every one intent on flat- 
tering her and many endeavoring in vain to poison her mind against those 
whom they wished to oust from her favor, the fact that she could be without 
a single mistake to her record indicates that far from being a dull or foolish 
person she must have been possessed of extraordinary cleverness — the most 
delightful contrast that it was possible to conceive to her immediate prede- 
cessor as Princess of Wales, the infamous and, above all, the appalHngly 
gross and vulgar consort of King George IV. 

CHARITABLE TO A GREAT DEGREE. 

Equally mistaken has been the impression which once prevailed that 
she had taken no part whatsoever in public life. It was estimated that 



ITS CHARITABLE TO A DEGREE. 

through her personal influence and direct action she had, during the nearly 
four decades that elapsed since she first came to England as the bride of the 
then Prince of Wales, been instrumental in securing the subscription and 
contribution of no less than $25o,ocx),ooo for charitable and philanthropic 
enterprises. 

This in itself was an achievement which conveys some idea of the use- 
fulness of the royal woman's life and the benefit which she had been to the 
land of her adoption. 

Not merely columns but volumes could be written of her innumerable 
acts of kindness, generosity, and of tender consideration of others, but it will 
suffice to relate one incident which may serve to illustrate the sympathy 
which she felt, and which can only be surpassed by the sympathy which she 
inspired. 

Once when she was in London an old lady-in-waiting of her mother, the 
Queen of Denmark, lay dying in the royal palace at Copenhagen. She had 
known Queen Victoria since the latter's infancy and was deeply attached to 
her. 

King Christian, her father, wrote every week to his daughter in Eng- 
land, and in one of his letters declared that her one dying wish was to speak 
with her Princess Alex before she expired. Alexandra was quite unable to 
leave England at the time, but she spoke a tender and sympathetic message 
into a phonograph and dispatched it to Copenhagen by special messenger. 

Already the dimness of death had veiled the old woman's eyes, when the 
phonograph gave out its message of love and hope, and as the last words 
died away and only the vibrations of the phonograph lingered on the air, 
she sighed happily, and with "God bless you, dear," on her lips, passed away 
to another world. 

If anything could console the English people for the loss which they 
sustained in the person of Victoria, it v/as the knowledge that their new 
Queen was, like her lamented mother-in-law, a woman of singularly blame- 
less life, of kindly disposition, a pattern of all domestic virtues, a woman 
whose heart goes out instinctively to all sorrow and suffering; in one word, 
a both lovely and lovable sovereign. 



CHARITABLE TO A DEGREE. 179 

The new Queen of England soon came to be Queen in the hearts of the 
common people, who knew her for the personal interest she took in their 
welfare. 

Alfred Tennyson, Poet Laureate of England, reflected the feelings of all 
the people when he wrote his "Welcome to Alexandra," when she was on 
her way to London to be married to the then Prince of Wales, in 1863: 

Sea king's daughter from over the sea, 

Alexandra ! 
Saxon and Norman and Dane are we. 
But all of us Danes in our welcome of thee, 

Alexandra ! 
Welcome her, thunders of fort and fleet! 
Welcome her, thundering cheer of the street! 
Welcome her, all things youthful and sweet, 
Scatter the blossom under her feet! 

Her Royal and Imperial Majesty cares little or nothing for the pomp 
and magnificence of State, and the probabilities are that she will devote the 
remaining years of her life in comparative seclusion. 

As has been said, and, indeed, as is known throughout the civilized 
world, she is of a deeply religious nature; while not a recluse, as was Queen 
Victoria for so many years after the death of the Prince Consort, her char- 
acter is grave; and her demeanor is that of one whose thoughts are not of 
this earth but dwell upon nobler things. 



CHAPTER IX. 

The Last Year of the Nineteenth Century a Sad One for the Fast-Failing Monarch, 
the Boer War and Various Family Troubles Causing Her to Become a 
Mental Wreck — Pathetic Story of Her Breaking Down — The Marquis of 
Salisbury, the Premier of the Closing Years of Her Life. 

JUST before the death of Queen Victoria facts became known which 
placed the illness of the beloved monarch in a startling and pathetic 
light. They showed that her mind had been failing for many months, 
even before her visit to Ireland. She had been a mental wreck for months. 
Whenever it was officially announced that she made felicitous responses to 
speeches at public functions it was a matter of cold fact that the poor old 
Queen was in such a daze that all she could say to her companion was: 
"Where am I?" 

Several times when she appeared in public during the six or eight months 
preceding her death she fell asleep. Had it been anyone else but the Queen of 
England it would have been plain long before her demise that the malady was 
senile decay. 

But for her physical breaking up and an attack of paralysis in the left side, 
it would have been possible for the court and the royal household to have kept 
from the British people knowledge of her mental decay for an indefinite 
period. For the Queen had lapses of intellectual vigor, but these were more 
distressing to her than her periods of mental density. 

When her brain was clear she immediately reverted to the horrors of the 
war in South Africa. Again and again she harped upon the war. This war, 
which she strove with all her power to avert, made the last days of England's 
Queen, who reigned happily longer than most men live, most wretched and 
miserable. In her lucid intervals it haunted her incessantly. 

The Queen's strong constitution manifested the first symptoms of serious 
decay during the stay of the court at Windsor in November and December 

180 



VICTORIA'S LAST SAD YEARS. 181 

of 1899, when evil tidings of the South African war, which began the previous 
October, began to arrive in rapid succession. 

The Queen did not look for any serious disaster to her army. She 
expected nothing but a series of quick, easy victories. Instead, disaster fol- 
lowed disaster every few days. 

General Buller, before leaving England for the South African campaign, 
assured the Queen that the war would be "difficult, but not dangerous." 

In consequence the news of the many reverses came to her with added 
severity. She felt that she had been deceived and never forgave Buller. 

When his name was submitted to her for a visit to Windsor after his 
return from South Africa in the latter part of 1900 she stroked it through 
with her pen. 

It was at this time that the Queen had the fits of crying in an aggravated 
form which immediately preceded her critical illness. 

The assassination of the King of Italy in July of 1900 shocked her deeply. 
The news of the illness of her eldest child, the Empress Frederick, added 
greatly to her distress, and the fact that she was physically unable to visit the 
Empress and see her before she died made her nervous and excitable. 

The^Dowager Empress of Germany was so ill when her mother died that 
she was unable to leave her castle in Germany and go to England. 

Then came the death of her second son, the Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha 
(Edinburgh), in the latter part of 1900, which in a few weeks was followed 
by the death of her grandson. Prince Christian Victor, son of her daughter 
Helena, wife of Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein. 

The prospect of an indefinite prolongation of the war was a trial under 
which her health again began to sink in November, 1900. Her spirit remained 
undaunted, and when it was reported that President Kruger had said the war 
would claim her as one of its victims the Queen declared : *T may die, but 
Mr. Kruger won't kill me." 

In December, 1900, her feebleness increased. Sleepless nights were passed 
in prayer and tears, causing the most profound anxiety to her entourage. 
The Queen lost her appetite and began to shrivel, presenting all the charac- 
teristics of senile decay. 



182 VICTORIA'S LAST SAD YEARS. 

The excitement incidental to her visit in the summer of 1900 to Ireland, 
which, despite everything stated to the contrary, was her own idea, seemed 
to revive her, but before the visit ended a reaction had set in. The public, 
however, was hoodwinked by the accounts of Her Majesty's doings and 
utterances given to the newspapers by her household. Unusual care was taken 
to have her alleged replies to addresses and other evidences of mental activity 
set before the public. In reality the Queen lived as in a dream. 

For instance, she was reported to have made an animated reply to an 
address presented to her at the Mount Anville convent in Dublin, whereas 
all she said was the dazed inquiry: "Where am I?" This happened not 
once, but several times. When she went to Balmoral, her Highland home, 
her spirits revived under the influence of Field Marshal Lord Roberts' brilliant 
achievements in the South African war, but the improvement was short. 

It had always been a source of wonder to her physicians that with her 
great appetite and physique she had escaped an apoplectic stroke, but about 
this time there was a falling away of her left side, accompanied by a loss of 
power in her left arm and left leg. 

These symptoms caused apprehension of approaching paralysis. So 
alarming was her condition that the royal family abandoned all idea of making 
a trip to the continent, which it had been hoped would revive the ^ Queen 
mentally and physically. 

Unfavorable war news and reports of the acute suffering of her dying 
daughter, the Dowager Empress Frederick, affected the Queen keenly. 

She suffered with increasing frequency from fits of depression and crying. 
She referred constantly to the death of the Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha 
(Edinburgh) and expressed a wish to see the Duchess. The change to 
Osborne just before Christmas time did not work the benefit that was antici- 
pated. Accordingly, the latter was summoned to Osborne, but at the first 
interview the Duchess left the Queen prostrated v/ith grief. 

In the midst of these troubles came the sudden and unexpected death of 
her oldest and dearest friend, the Dowager Lady Qiurchill, senior lady of 
the bedchamber and member of the royal household for forty-six years. 

While the Queen was sleepless at night, she had long had strange fits of 



VICTORIA'S LAST SAD YEARS. 183 

drowsiness in the daytime. When her mind was clear the Queen tried 
vaHantly to combat this faiUng. The court officials have also worked hard to 
k^ep her from sleeping- at the wrong time. 

The last time she drove outside the grounds of Osborne the villagers of 
East Cowes were astounded tO' hear the clear treble of the son of the Princess 
of Battenberg trilling out popular songs from the royal carriage. 

The boy was singing tO' keep his grandmother awake, in obedience to her 
wishes. Now and again she dosed, wakening tO' tell the boy to continue his 
chant, which, to the initiated onlooker, contained a v/orld of pathos. 

The Queen drove about in her donkey chaise within the grounds of 
Osborne House for the last time on Tuesday, January 15th, 1901. The 
Duchess of Edinburgh or Saxe-Coburg-Gotha was her companion. On her 
return to the castle the Queen was asleep. In that condition she was carried 
to her bed never to rise again. Dr. Pagenstechter, the German oculist, was 
summoned to Osborne. 

She suffered acutely from her eyes, owing to her constant crying. Dr. 
Pagenstechter made a general examination and reported that the Queen had 
nothing organically wrong, but was suffering from nervous exhaustion. 

In her periods of mental activity she harped sO' incessantly upon the war 
that Colonial Secretary Chamberlain was commanded to go to Osborne to 
console her with reassuring news. Mr. Chamberlain led the war party when 
the Queen favored peace in South Africa. 

It was not a wise thing, as it turned out, for her household to summon 
Mr. Chamberlain. His efforts tO' console the Queen Vv^ere fruitless and she 
abruptly closed the conference. 

Subsequently Field Marshal Lord Roberts was directed to appear at 
Osborne. He did not attempt to deceive the Queen, but frankly explained 
the difficulties which had tO' be overcome before the war in South Africa could 
be terminated. The interview lasted some time, and it was the last time that 
the Queen displayed the wide knowledge and shrewd common sense which 
played such an important part in her long reign. 

It was after the Roberts interview that the Queen, accompanied by the 
Duchess of Edinburgh, vv^ent for the drive already mentioned. Two weeks 



184 CHARACTERISTICS OF LORD SALISBURY. 

before the public knew of it Sir Francis Laking had been assisting Sir James 
Reid at Osborne. On Thursday, January 17th, Sir Douglas Powell, the 
famous heart and lung specialist, was summoned to Osborne because of two 
attacks of heart failure from which the Queen suffered on the night previous. 
At that time the Queen's condition had assumed the gravest complexion, 
but the Prince of Wales, in order to prevent public alarm or suspicion, attended 
a dinner given to Lord Roberts and subsequently appeared at the theater on 
Thursday night. On Thursday the Queen had a stroke of paralysis. 

CHARACTERISTICS OF LORD SALISBURY. 

The Marquis of Salisbury, whO' was the Prime Minister during the closing 
years of Queen Victoria's reign, enjoyed the confidence of Her Majesty to a 
greater extent than any other of the ten premiers who served under her with 
the single exception of Benjamin Disraeli, Earl of Beaconsfield. 

The most remarkable thing about Lord Salisbury was a personal one, 
though it had a certain sort of political interest. He was the first Prime 
Minister of England since his ancestor, Robert Cecil, Earl of Burleigh, Lord 
Keeper of the Great Seal under Queen Elizabeth, who had worn a beard. 
The fashion of wearing beards went out in England at the beginning of the 
seventeenth century, and has never quite come in again among that class of 
men from whom prime ministers are drawn. Even the mustache was almost 
unknown in England, except among the military, until after the Crimean 
war, when civilians took to wearing it, partly in imitation of the soldiers and 
partly from the influence of the French alliance. But as for the beard, it is 
still regarded as an eccentricity or as the mark of some outlandish bringing up. 

The official class, as a rule, wear only side whiskers. Mr. Gladstone, Lord 
Beaconsfield, Lord Russell, Lord Palmerston, Lord Derby, Lord Aberdeen, 
Sir Robert Peel, the Duke of Wellington, Lord Melbourne, and all the other 
Prime Ministers of the nineteenth century wore only side whiskers, while 
before their time, for two centuries, the custom was to shave close. At the 
present day beards are more common in the House of Lords than in the House 
of Commons, because a good many elderly men wear them, and the lords are 
much older than the commons. 



CHARACTERISTICS OF LORD SALISBURY. 185 

But in either house a beard makes a man decidedly noticeable. Lord 
Spencer, formerly Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, wore a big, rough beard, and 
Lord Lathom, once Lord Chamberlain, wore a huge red beard, coming almost 
down to his waist. But Lord Salisbury was the only Prime Minister for just 
300 years who wore a beard. And such a beard as it is. If it were not for 
his great, bulbous forehead and long aggressive nose, his beard would seem to 
cover the whole face of the man and constitute his whole individuality. With 
its sturdy business, and total disregard of conventional ideas, it is, indeed, 
very characteristic of him. 

The Duke of Devonshire, who also' wears a beard, is said to have more 
"you be damnedness" about him than any other nobleman in England. But 
Lord Salisbury runs him close. He is the very type of the strong-minded, 
bull-headed, good tempered English aristocrat ; and he shows it in his appear- 
ance as much as in his words and acts. 

The origin of Lord Salisbury's beard, however, is tO' be found in an incident 
O'f his career not generally known, or, rather, generally forgotten, but which 
had had a good deal to do with the formation of his character. 

He was a younger son of the second Marquis of Salisbury, and though his 
father was the lord of many acres and married to a great heiress, the present 
head of the house started in life with little but a historic name and a splendid 
education. 

Lord Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoigne Cecil was not the man to live on his 
father or to idle away the best of his years among dogs and horses. He deter- 
mined to be independent and, having an Oxford fellowship to support him, 
he set out for Australia and New Zealand with the serious intention of becom- 
ing a colonist and building up his own fortune by enterprise and hard work. 
That was when he grew his beard, for in those days a razor was almost an 
unknown article in the colonies, and, having got into the habit of it, he has 
worn it ever since. 

Lord Roberts' plans of life were entirely changed by the death of his elder 
brother, Lord Cranbourne, to whose courtesy, title and magnificent prospects 
he succeeded. He had already made a great name for himself in the House of 
Commons and had been a member of Lord Derby's Cabinet, when, five years 



186 CHARACTERISTICS OF LORD SALISBURY. 

later, the death of his father made him Marquis of Salisbury and one of the 
great landed magnates of England. He was then just thirty-eight years of 
age and in the prime of his powers, and his accession to the House of Lords 
proved a most fortunate thing for the Conservative party. Lord Derby — 
the great Lord Derby as he is commonly called — was a Tory of the old school, 
and a most unfortunate politician in every way. 

He was a man of splendid presence and most chivalrous character, and 
his princely mumficence and ardent love of sport made him personally popular. 
But he was never in touch with the English people or in harmony with the 
spirit of the age. He seemed to be a* feud'al nobleman of the middle ages 
dropped accidentally into the nineteenth century. Under his leadership the 
Conservatives really had no prospects at all. They never got into power 
except through some temporary crisis, and they never held it for more than a 
few months. All idea of a Conservative administration as a permanent thing 
seemed to have passed away. 

Just a year after Lord Salisbury's accession to> the family honors, Lord 
Derby died. Mr. Disraeli, as he then was, succeeded to the leadership of the 
party, and Lord Salisbury took charge of their interests in the House of 
Lords. He was immediately elected Chancellor of the University of Oxford 
in succession to Lord Derby — a very high honor for so young a man — and was 
marked out for the future Prime Minister. 

Two more different men than Disraeli and Lord Salisbury could not well 
be imagined. Disraeli was all his life an actor, a mystery, a dreamer, an 
adventurer. He possessed nothing and he did not want to possess anything. 
He never really owned an acre of land in his life, and if he had just enough 
money for current expenses he was thankful noit to be troubled with more. 

He had no children, and his wife was more like a friend than anything 
else. He was as un-English in all his ideas as he was in appearance. 

Lord Salisbury is exactly the opposite. He is, perhaps, the most English 
Englishman in England. He is a wealthy land owner and the inheritor of 
titles and estates 300 years old; essentially a family man, and the very pink 
of social grandeur and high style. -Yet the two men got on excellently 
together, because they both had brains. Lord Salisbury was wise enough 



CHARACTERISTICS OF LORD SALISBURY. 187 

to discern that Disraeli, with all his flimsiness and all his charlatanism, had 
really big ideas and a big enough heart to carry them out. He was bold 
enough, too, to trust Disraeli ; and nobody who ever trusted him found him 
false. Disraeli had that strange insight into men's characters which enabled 
him to find out sooner than anybody else, not excepting themselves, what they 
were best fit for. 

Lord Salisbury had devoted himself mainly to home affairs and especially 
to church questions ; but Disraeli discerned in him a great foreign minister. 
By way of testing his capacity in this respect he sent him to the conference 
of the powers at Constantinople, without any previous training, as Minister 
Plenipotentiary, at an extremely critical period. 

He acquitted himself so well that he acquired at one stroke almost equal 
rank with Disraeli as a master of foreign policies — a position which he never 
forfeited. From that time until Disraeli's death in 1881 the two statesmen 
were as David and Jonathan; and when the author of the policy of "peace 
with honor" was laid to his rest under the pyramid of primroses at Hughen- 
den, Lord Salisbury was unanimously acclaimed his successor in the leadership 
of the Conservative party. « 

How. well he succeeded in that position is attested by the fact that of the 
years which elapsed since Disraeli's death to the death of Queen Victoria the 
Conservatives were in office a great part of the time ; they were never defeated 
on a government question in the House of Commons, nor on any question in 
the House of Lords; and they lost fewer seats than either party ever lost 
before in an equal length of time. 

The contrast between their condition to-day and their condition under 
Lord Derby is one of the most remarkable things in the modern history of 
English politics. Undoubtedly, Disraeli had a great deal toi do with that. It 
was he who galvanized the prestige of the Conservative party into a brilliant 
semblance of renewed vitality. But it was Lord Salisbury who' really inspired 
it with fresh life, and maintained it over a Iqng period of eventful years in 
ever increasing vigor. 

A British foreign minister needs to be much more than a mere diplomatist. 
The ablest and most prominent diplomatists in the Queen's service were, in 



188 CHARACTERISTICS OF LORD ■ SALISBURY. 

fact, but instruments in his hands. If only the British Isles were to be con- 
sidered, his post would be comparatively a sinecure. 

But what he had to understand and bear constantly in mind were the 
several and collective interests of all the diverse and widely scattered parts of 
the empire. Often, when he was conducting some tedious negotiation with 
a continental power upon an apparently trivial question, the object which he 
really had in view was connected with the future safety or welfare of some 
distant dependency. Practically he controlled all the outside affairs of the 
Empire, and the Minister of War, the Secretary of State for the Colonies, and 
even the first Lord of the Admiralty were but coadjutors of his. That was why 
Lord Salisbury always contended that the office of Minister for Foreign 
Affairs ought tO' be held by the head of the government. 

Before his time it was customary for the Premier to be First Lord of the 
Treasury, on the theory that he ought to hold the purse strings. But Lord 
Salisbury always took the ground that the most important office in the Cabinet 
in the modern position of the British Empire was that of Foreign Minister, 
and that he was quite as well able to control the purse strings through a trusted 
colleague as he would be if he himself administered the Treasury. 

History affords abundant evidence of the correctness of this view. All 
the trouble between Great Britain and France about the North American 
fisheries — and a very serious trouble it was — arose from gross ignorance of 
colonial affairs on the part of a Foreign Minister more than one hundred 
years ago. In one of his best known essays Macaulay makes great fun of the 
Duke of Newcastle not knowing that Cape Breton was an island. But at a 
much later period Java, the gem of the Indian Ocean, was lost to Great 
Britain by a similar blunder on the part of a Foreign Minister, who, in con- 
cluding a treaty of peace, said he supposed "one island was pretty much the 
same as another !" 

One need not go so far back as that, indeed, to see the results of the system 
of divided counsels in imperial affairs, against which Lord Salisbury 
steadfastly set his face. All through Mr. Gladstone's long administration the 
Empire was involved in costly and disastrous little wars, and in angry alter- 
cations with the colonies, simply because the Premier gave all his attention 




Q 

Pi 
< 

< 

< 
I— I 

O 
H 
U 



w 
;=) 
a 

w 
Pi 
w 

u 

<: 

CO 



H 
c/} 




u 

< 

< 

PL, 
CO 

W 
< 

(/> 

H 

<C 

H 
W 
en 

O 
h4 
O 

(A 

W 

w 



CHARACTERISTICS OF LORD SALISBURY. 191 

to the Treasury, while the Foreign Minister, the War Minister, the First Lord 
of the Admiralty, and the Secretary of the Colonies each pulled his own way. 
There has been nothing- of that kind during the last seven years, and it is 
safe tO' say there never will be as long as Lord Salisbury remains where he is. 
The rule of his foreign policy is, to use his own words, "to treat all other 
powers as a gentleman would treat his neighbors, that is to say, like gentle- 
men," and in every case, if possible, to come tO' a friendly settlement beneficial 
to all concerned ; and the underlying principle of it all is to keep good faith, 
promising nothing which he does not fulfill, and threatening nothing which 
he does not mean to inflict. 

Bismarck, who was a good judge in such matters, used to say it was 
impossible to cultivate the friendship of Great Britain under Mr. Gladstone, 
because it was impossible to depend on British policy from week to week, 
whereas under Lord Salisbury's regime Germany became warmly attached to 
Great Britain without offending French susceptibilities. 

At home, while Lord Salisbury's great merits as a foreign minister were 
very generally acknowledged, he never gained popularity in the ordinary 
sense. The aristocracy swore by him, and the great mass of the working men 
had a genuine admiration of him. But the lower middle class, the small 
tradesmen, and the mere mob did not like him at all. As for him, he despised 
them too heartily to have any resentment against them, and he was far too 
proud to make any effort to conciliate them. 

He never shrank from expressing his contempt for them and their views 
of public life, and he was at any time ready to retire rather than be indebted 
to them for a single vote. He was not at all an eloquent speaker, but he was 
so bold and clear, and in dealing with his opponents he had such a cutting 
wit that his speeches were always eagerly listened tO' and read. 

He was not uncommonly charged with bad taste in his epigrams, as, for 
instance, when he said, apropos of William O'Brien and Dillon's flight from 
bail and Parnell's catastrophe : "It is a curious thing about Irish Nationalist 
leaders that they are always escaping. Sometimes they escape by water, and 
sometimes by the fire escape." He cared nothing for such accusations. He said 
whatever he pleased, and if his foes didn't like it, so much the worse for them,. 



192 ALL ENGLAND BOWED IN GRIEF. 

In private life Lord Salisbury is a princely noble in all respects, a magnifi- 
cent host, an excellent landlord, and a firm and cordial friend. He entertained 
Queen Victoria at Hatfield House, his splendid seat in Hertfordshire, as his 
ancestors entertained Queen Elizabeth under the same roof; and he also 
entertained the German Emperor there. 

But to see him at his best it was necessary to be at one of his "home" 
parties when he surrounded himself with his neighbors and friends from all 
parts of the country, and came out strong in his true character of a "fine old 
English gentleman, one of the olden time." He loves good eating and drink- 
ing, puts away a bottle of old port after dinner, in defiance of his hereditary 
gout, and is not at all ashamed of a few generous old English vices. 

But noblesse oblige is his rule of life, and he never departs from it. 

ALL ENGLAND BOWED IN GRIEF. 

The end of Queen Victoria's matchless reign came much more swiftly than 
was expected. The country was sufficiently alarmed by the first noncommittal 
announcement, but the nation was plunged into grief by the ominous bulletin 
which was posted later at the Mansion House in London. There was no mis- 
taking its terrible significance. It was almost identical in expression with the 
statement made only a few days before in 'preface to the death of the Bishop 
of London. 

Quick upon the heels of this mournful notice came the news that all mem- 
bers of the royal family were hastening to the bedside of the august sovereign 
as fast as trains and boats could convey them. An hour later arrived a dispatch 
saying that the Emperor of Germany had abandoned the great national festival 
in which he was engaged and was speeding to Osborne. He arrived there 
January 21st, bearing a message of love from his mother, the Queen's eldest 
daughter. 

There was no doubt that the world craved knowledge of what was passing 
in the sickroom at Osborne more keenly than it ever before sought to know 
the secrets of a human death-bed. But this curiosity will never be gratified. 
Any account that pretends to invade that privacy, which is sacred even with 
dying sovereigns to those dearest to them, was apocryphal. On the other 



ALL ENGLAND BOWED IN GRIEF. 193 

hand, the boundless loyalty and love of her subjects won for them some 
glimpse of her last hours. This was vouchsafed in a semi-official statement. 

It is almost incorrect to say the Queen died of any specified disease, her 
breaking down was sO' general. The stomachic symptoms were perhaps the 
most serious, because she was no longer able to take nourishment. It was, 
happily, untrue that she suffered to any extent. That great compensation of 
old age, the partial numbing of all the faculties, was vouchsafed to her. She 
simply drifted silently, calmly, almost unconsciously out into the beyond. 

Public attention turned sympathetically to the Prince of Wales at that 
supreme moment of his life. 

It had sometimes been callously speculated as to whether the Prince of 
Wales was not really impatient at the long delay which kept him from the 
regal powers beyond the ordinary operation of nature's laws. No one who 
saw the sad face of the gray-bearded man of sixty who paced the platform 
at the Victoria Station in London for a quarter of an hour the afternoon of 
January i8th, the first time he was summoned to Osborne House, would 
believe him capable of such a cynical ambition. His carriage, containing him- 
self and two equerries and bearing one small trunk, had dashed up to the 
station, where a special train was in waiting, but the Princess, Louise, who was 
going on the same train, had been delayed. The Prince spent the interval 
while he was waiting for his sister quite alone, pacing back and forth with 
bowed head. His manner plainly betokened that he was grief-stricken and 
heavy-hearted. 

When the Princess Louise's carriage arrived at the station she stepped 
quickly to the platform. The Prince did not stop to greet his sister, but 
handed her silently into the car and the train started instantly. 

It was only a few weeks previously that persons acquainted with the 
Prince's physical condition, and who were anxious on this point, were express- 
ing the opinion that the Queen's prospects of life were better than her son's. 

He left Osborne House on January 20th to meet the Emperor of Germany 
on his arrival, and returned with him to Osborne on the 21st. 

Englishmen are accustomed toi meet great afflictions silently, England 
was silent while the Queen was dying, save for places where people. 



194 ALL ENGLAND BOWED IN GRIEF. 

for one cause or another, gathered together, and there "God Save the 
Queen" was sung brokenly and fervently for the last time. It was sung in 
almost every club in London. The dread conviction had entered the hearts 
of the people that the Queen was dying, and it was as if there were a death- 
bed in every home in that fair land. 

"None can know how we love the Queen," said a prominent English- 
man. "It is the same to each one of us as if the dearest member of our own 
family was dying." 

However, there is, in a measure, a compensation for the loss the English 
nation suffered in the death of Queen Victoria — Queen Alexandra. 

There is not a woman in the world who is more deserving of the love 
and loyalty of her subjects. 

It is a most difficult matter to understand such a character as hers; it is 
complex, and at the same time it is simplicity itself. 

No Queen ever sat upon a throne who possessed the confidence the new 
Queen and Empress will receive. She will be an aid to her royal and 
imperial husband, for her judgment is good, while the trend of her mind 
is toward carefulness and caution. 

The hearts of the people of the great British Empire cannot do other- 
wise than go out to the noble consort of their ruler. 



CHAPTER X. 

Memorial Tributes by the Great Rulers of Earth and the Most Eminent Men of the 
World to the Character, Virtues, Goodness and Wisdom of the Departed 
ftueen and Empress — Her High Standard of Womanliness — Her Demise 
Regarded as a Mournful Event Everywhere — Even England's Hereditary 
Enemies Praise Her Late Majesty. 

THE tributes paid by the rulers of the most powerful countries of the 
earth to the memory of Queen Victoria were by no means the only 
tokens of affection and esteem laid upon her bier. The various peo- 
ples of the world made their sorrow manifest, and eminent men, in every walk 
of life, spoke in terms of highest praise. 

Among the humbler classes of the dead Queen's subjects the grief was 
very pronounced. 

The Lord Mayor of London telegraphed the following to the Prince of 
Wales, upon whom his mother's death had forced the Kingship: 

"Your Royal Highness' telegram announcing the nation's loss I have 
received with profound distress and grief, and I have communicated this most 
sad intimation to my fellow-citizens,, 

"Her Majesty's name and memory will live lorever in the hearts of her 
people. 

"May I respectfully convey to Your Royai Hignness the earnest sym- 
pathy and condolence of the City of London in your great sorrow. 

"FRANK GREEN, Lord Mayor." 

After sending this despatch the Lord Mayor took the necessary steps to 
have the great bell in St. Paul's Cathedral tolled, and soon its deep note was 
sounding at intervals of a minute over the metropolis. 

The bell is tolled only at the death of a member of the royal family, the 
Archbishop of Canterbury, the Bishop of London, the Dean of St. Paul's, or 
the Lord Mayor. 

At Windsor the mournful tolHng of the bell in the curfew tower of the 
castle announced to the townfolk at 6:45 o'clock that the end had come. At 

195 



196 TRIBUTES TO THE DEAD QUEEN. 

the first stroke hundreds hastened to the Henry VIII. gateway and read the 
bulletin. The Queen was a good friend to the poor of Windsor and its 
neighbors, and her death was deplored there more as a woman than as 
a Queen. 

From Edinburgh, Glasgow, Dublin, and all the cities and towns of the 
United Kingdom the same reports of sorrow came. Muffled peals were 
rung in many of the cathedrals and churches. 

At Liverpool, where there is a considerable Mussulman community, the 
celebration of the festival of Bairam was proceeding in the Mosque when the 
news of Her Majesty's death was received. The Sheikh Ul Islam of the Brit- 
ish Isles immediately proposed a resolution of condolence, which was 
approved in solemn silence and then transmitted. 

On January 24th an extraordinary gazette (London) published an order 
in council "that it is expected that all persons upon the present occasion, the 
death of her late Majesty of blessed and glorious memory, will put them- 
selves into deepest mourning." 

The army was ordered to wear mourning until March 5th, 

Another order in council substituted "King" for "Queen" and "Edward" 
for "Victoria." It also inserted "our gracious Queen Alexandra, George, 
Duke of Cornwall and York, and the Duchess of Cornwall and York." 

The fact that the court went into mourning for a year and the further fact 
that the public was enjoined to go into the "deepest" mourning led to the 
knowledge that the coronation will not occur until 1902. 

The instruction that the Duke of York was to be named in the prayer 
book "Duke of Cornwall" threw light upon the much-debated question of 
the heir-apparent's title. It was supposed the title "Prince of Wales," which 
belongs only to a son born of the King, might be conferred upon the Duke 
of York, by royal patent; but the Gazette announcement indicated that this 
would not be done, and that the Duke of York would henceforth be known 
as the Duke of Cornwall. 

The colonial office announced that an immense number of telegrams of 
condolence had been received from colonial governors and public bodies in 
the colonies. 



TRIBUTES TO THE DEAD QUEEN. 1Q7 

There was a continual string of condolence messages from other quarters. 
Cardinal Vaughan sent word that he would bring from Rome a special mes- 
sage from the Pope to the new King. 

At Moscow the Dowager Empress of Russia, together with other royal 
personages, expressed her sympathy for England on the occasion of Queen 
Victoria's death to the British ambassador in St. Petersburg. 

The death of Queen Victoria called out the greatest sympathy at Cairo, 
Egypt. The Khedive paid a personal visit to the British minister, who 
received thousands of telegrams of condolence from representative bodies 
all over that country. Public buildings were draped in black and invitations 
to all festivities, private and public alike, have been recalled. The accession 
of Edward VII. was considered to bring Egypt into a closer union with 
Great Britain. His Majesty was personally known to many Egyptians. 

At Dresden, Saxony, services in memory of Queen Victoria were held in 
all the English churches. Court balls and all official functions were sus- 
pended and the Saxon court went into mourning for a period of three weeks. 
Flags over the city were placed at half-mast. 

In Valparaiso, the capital of Chile, from all buildings and the headquar- 
ters of foreign legations and consulates flags were put at half-mast because 
of the death of Queen Victoria. British residents appeared in mourning 
garments, and they held memorial services on the day of the Queen's funeral. 
The President sent messages of condolence to King Edward VII. and to 
Emperor William, and the Secretary of Foreign Affairs visited the British 
legation to convey the government's sympathy. 

In Paris, France, M. Delcasse, Minister of Foreign Affairs, referred to 
the death of Queen Victoria in the Senate. He said the Queen had acquired 
singular authority outside of her own empire and universal respect. Presi- 
dent Loubet paid a visit to the British ambassador. Sir Edmund J. Monson, 
at the embassy, to express condolences. 

All animosity toward England was forgotten. President Loubet, of the 
French Republic, sent a telegram of condolence to King Edward couched in 
sympathetic terms as follows: 



198 TRIBUTES TO THE DEAD QUEEN. 

"I am keenly affected by the news of the Queen's death. I beg to 
express to Your Royal Highness my most sincere sympathy." 

The King sent a reply expressing his warmest thanks. 

Out of his profound respect for the Queen of Great Britain, who was his 
counselor and friend, King Leopold, of Belgium, ordered the court to go into 
mourning for two months. This was the longest period of mourning ever 
imposed on the Belgian court in case of the death of a foreign ruler. 

The Pope received the news of the death of Queen Victoria from Cardinal 
Rampolla, the Pontifical Secretary of State. His Holiness, who had followed 
Her Majesty's illness with the greatest interest and sympathy, did not speak, 
but immediately knelt in silent prayer and so remained for considerable 
time. Afterwards he ordered that prayers be said in all the churches to-mor- 
row for the repose of Her Majesty's soul. 

William McKinley, President of the United States, sent the following 
message of condolence to King Edward VH. : 

"His Majesty the King, Osborne House, Isle of Wight — I have received 
with profound sorrow the lamentable tidings of the death of Her Majesty 
the Queen. Allow me, sir, to ofTer my sincere sympathy and that of the 
American people in your personal bereavement, and in the loss Great Britain 
has suffered in the death of its venerable and illustrious sovereign, whose 
noble life and beneficent influence have promoted the peace and won the 
affection of the world. 

"WILLIAM M'KINLEY." 

To this the King replied as follows: 

"Osborne, January 24th, 1901. — The President, White House, Washing- 
ton, D. C.: Am most grateful for your kind sympathy in the irreparable loss 
which the nation and I have sustained. I felt convinced that it would be 
shared by you and the American people. 

"EDWARD, R." 

The Senate of the United States adopted the following: 

"That the death of Her Royal and Imperial Majesty Victoria, of noble vir- 
tues and great renown, is sincerely deplored by the Senate of the United 
States of America." 



TRIBUTES TO THE DEAD QUEEN. 199 

Both Senate and House of the United States Congress voted to adjourn 
in honor of the dead Queen. 

The Sultan of Turkey sent a telegram to King Edward VII., expressing 
his sympathy over the death of Queen Victoria, as follows: 

"I have received with deep regret the news of the death of her august 
Majesty, the Queen, the mother of Your Majesty. Profoundly moved by this 
mournful event I hasten to express to Your Majesty my most sincere con- 
dolences." 

The Sultan also telegraphed to Emperor William and to Empress Fred- 
erick similar expressions of sympathy. 

Signs of sorrow over the death of the Queen were everywhere visible. 
At Pretoria, former capital of the Transvaal, even the burghers showed a 
respectful sympathy. 

The Boer prisoners at Green Point suspended all amusements until 
after the Queen's funeral as a token of respect to her memory. 

Emperor Francis Joseph of Austria was deeply affected when he heard 
of the death of Queen Victoria. He immediately telegraphed a message of 
condolence to the Prince of Wales. 

The Russian court went into mourning as soon as the news of the Queen's 
death reached the Czar, who was at Livadia. 

King Victor Emanuel ordered the court to go into mourning for a fort- 
night. The Premier, Signor Saracco, eulogized Queen Victoria in the 
Chamber of Deputies. 

King Victor Emmanuel, Queen Helena, the Dowager Queen Mar- 
gherita, and the Pope telegraphed their condolences. 

The Dutch (Kingdom of Holland) press printed the news of the death of 
Queen Victoria with mourning borders. The court went into mourning. 

Queen Wilhelmina, who was much grieved, immediately dispatched mes- 
sages of condolence to the members of the British royal family. 

All the papers published sympathetic articles, the Vaderland praising the 
dead Queen as a modern constitutional monarch. 

The Navy Gazette published a general order in which Emperor William 



200 TRIBUTES TO THE DEAD QUEEN. 

of Germany expressed his sympathy for the "sister navy of Great Britain to 
which the German navy is bound by oft-tried comradeship." 

His Majesty directed that officers and officials of the navy wear mourning 
bands upon their left arms for a fortnight and that the ships' flags be flown at 
half-mast until after the funeral. His Majesty also directed the German navy 
to observe the same ceremonial upon the day of the Queen's obsequies as 
observed by the British navy. 

His Imperial Majesty also ordered his army to wear mourning. 

THE POET LAUREATE'S TRIBUTE. 

ALFRED AUSTIN ON THE VIRTUES OF THE QUEEN. 
Mr. Alfred Austin, the poet laureate, wrote a long poem entitled "Vic- 
toria," in which he traced her life and described her character. Here are 
some typical verses: 

Queen, Empress, more than Empress or than Queen, 

The Lady of the World on high enthroned, 

By right divine of duties well fulfilled, 

To be the pattern to all Queens, all Kings, 

All women, and the consciences of men 

WhO' look on duty as man's only right. 

And long and late this happy season wore 
This mellow, gracious autumn of her days; 
This sweet, grave Indian summer, till we grew 
To deem it limitless, and half forgot 
Mortality's decree, and now there falls 
A sudden sadness on our lives, and we 
Can only bow disconsolate heads and weep. 
And look out from our lonely hearts and see 
The homeless drifting of the winter mist. 
And hear the requiem of the winter wind. 

SORROW GENERAL THROUGHOUT CANADA. 

As soon as the Queen's death became known in Canada expressions of 
sorrow were universal. 

Ottawa, the capital of the Dominion, was wrapped in gloom. The sorrow 
and heaviness which weighed upon the citizens of Ottawa were too genuine 
to be mistaken, and were apparent upon the faces of all. 



TRIBUTES TO THE DEAD QUEEN. 201 

An indication of the profound sorrow felt by all classes of citizens was to 
be noted in the general cancellation of public and private functions and social 
engagements. Even children assembling in the public schools could speak of 
little else than the Queen, and in many of the classes the day succeeding her 
death was begun by the singing for the last time of "God Save the Queen," 

The Cabinet met and a message of sympathy and of congratulation to the 
new ruler, as required by British precedent, was prepared, which was passed 
by the government and forwarded to the Colonial Office for presentation to 
King Edward. 

The Governor General at once took the oath of allegiance, as did all the 
members of his cabinet and the Lieutenant Governors of the several pro- 
vinces and their advisers. Proclamations officially announcing the death of 
the Queen and proclaiming the accession to the throne of her successor were 
issued by a gazette extraordinary. 

At Montreal the death of Queen Victoria aroused profound sorrow. As 
soon as the news was received flags were placed at half-mast on all the public 
buildings and the bells of the Roman Catholic and Protestant churches were 
tolled for over two hours. Archbishop Bruchesi, head of the Roman Cath- 
olic church, issued a letter calHng for prayers, and a solemn requiem mass 
was celebrated in all the Roman Catholic churches on the day of the funeral. 

The Mayor of Montreal cabled a message of sympathy to the new King 
and proclaimed a day of mourning. The city was draped in mourning. 

Toronto heard the news of the death of Queen Victoria with quietness, 
but the grief was profound. Flags on the public buildings were placed at 
half-mast, the newspapers had their bulletins in mourning, and in the shop 
windows draped portraits of the Queen were to be seen. 

Toronto's citizens received notification of the death by the tolling of "Big 
Ben" in the tower of the city hall, the mournful ringing of the bells in the 
fire hall, and the playing of "The Dead March in Saul" on the chimes of St. 
James' Cathedral. 

Probably in no part of the British Empire was more genuine sorrow man- 
ifested at the death of Queen Victoria than in the French Canadian province 
of Quebec, where the boon of constitutional self-government, for which they 



202 TRIBUTES TO THE DEAD QUEEN. 

had been so long and bloody a struggle, was accorded during the early years 

of the late sovereign's reign. 

As soon as the news of the Queen's death was received there was a gen- 
eral tolling of bells in the towers of the many churches of this old city of 
churches, both Protestant and Roman Catholic. Papal flags, flanked on 
either side by the Union Jack, were placed at half-mast on the Archbishop's 
palace. 

The Roman CathoHc authorities, the Mayor of Quebec, the Lieutenant 
Governor of the province and other officials forwarded telegrams of sym- 
pathy to the royal family, all breathing sentiments of deepest regret. All 
social functions pending, both private and public, were immediately can- 
celed, and universal mourning was the order of the day. 

The announcement of Queen Victoria's death called forth expressions of 
the keenest regret in Newfoundland, the oldest colony of the British Empire. 
The Colonial Cabinet met and adopted resolutions of condolence, which 
were cabled to London. January 23rd was observed as a day of mourning 
throughout the colony. 

A. G. Jones, Governor of Novia Scotia, paid the following tribute: 
"She had such a wonderful personality not only with her own people but 
in the weightiest affairs of the world at large that we are almost led to won- 
der in doubt and apprehension what may be the effect of the loss of her 
guiding judgment and influence on the century now otherwise so happily 
opened. 

"She has never thwarted the wishes of her people, but has led the way and 
encouraged them in every good work and deed that was for their own benefit 
or for the welfare of the world at large. 

"No country that I know of has given the world a sovereign with the 
same prerogatives and authority who has given such proofs of moderation 
combined with kindness and firmness, when necessary, and her grateful and 
loving people will forever cherish the memory of o-ne who has given them 
such abundant cause for devotion and respect." 

At Halifax, the seat of the fountainhead of British naval and military 
power in the Western hemisphere, symbols of mourning for the death of 



TRIBUTES TO THE DEAD QUEEN: 203 

Queen Victoria were everywhere displayed. Flags were at half-mast from 
ships, and the royal standard, for the first time in years, was at half-mast at 
the citadel. 

THE VOICE OF THE PRESS. 

The news of the death of Queen Victoria was known in Paris at 8 o'clock 
that evening through special editions of the evening papers. Great sym- 
pathy was expressed on all sides. The Temps, discussing the outlook, said: 

*'The sadness, alarm, anxieties, moral sufferings and pecuniary cares aris- 
ing out of the Transvaal war have created a new feeling in England. Queen 
Victoria has been like a mother of a family, a living link with the prosperity 
of the past, an anchor of security for the British people." 

Few and far between were the Paris papers which did not sound the note 
of regret at the passing of Victoria. In addition to long obituaries, special 
writers published appreciations, reviewing the Queen's life-work, noting in 
what respects it contributed to the greatness of the British nation, and specu- 
lating in some cases upon the reign about to open. 

Foremost of the special writers was M. Hanoteaux, who, in Le Journal, 
referred to the extent of England's debt to Victoria, "who, as are most 
women, because of their suppleness and adaptability, admirable leaders of the 
people." He continued: 

"Her temperament and judgment, thanks to the precious lessons of Lord 
Melbourne, were in complete accord with English Parliamentary institu- 
tions. Her success as a sovereign was due to her close attention to the affairs 
of state, her frequent journeys, her interviews with foreign statesmen, and, 
above all, to the extraordinary position of being allied to several of the 
reigning sovereigns of Europe." 

Le Gaulois said: 

"Her action may be summed up in a brief phrase, little authority and 
much influence. The changes which are about to take place express better 
than blind and foolish flattery the place she occupied in Europe. That will 
be her true funeral oration, the final word of which will be that she, the pos- 
sessor of most ordinary faculties, accomplished more than certain conquerors 



204 TRIBUTES TO THE DEAD QUEEN. 

and has left a greater gap than Catherine or EHzabeth. This was simply 
because she understood her age and her duty." 

Le Figaro, after speaking of the "inestimable loss to England," said: 

"The new King, owing to his residence in England, is coming into close 
touch with the people and his liberalism will be able to render valuable ser- 
vices to his country in the present circumstances. His private views regard- 
ing imperialism are not known, but it is doubtful if he will allow himself to be 
deceived as to its poHtical formulas. His reign begins amid a crisis, to avert 
which is his first mission. His accession, under such conditions, attracted the 
eyes of the world to England." 

Le Siecle said: 

"Doubtless the Prince of Wales will follow the good example of his 
mother, whose death will mark no change of policy or opinion to Great Brit- 
ain. He will peaceably enjoy the loyalty of the empire, accorded during the 
long reign of the Queen." 

Lieutenant-General Nelson A. Miles, commanding the Army of the 
United States, said: 

"Her reign, considering the history of the past sixty years, the important 
political events that occurred, the progress made by the whole world, the 
part Great Britain played in the progress and the influence its sovereign 
constantly exercised upon the affairs of the world, was the most remarkable 
in the history of any country. 

"As to the Queen and her soldiers, there had ever been a close relation- 
ship between the Queen and her forces — both army and navy." 

AFFECTION EXPRESSED BY LONDON PAPERS. 

"Good-by, dear Queen," were the words with which a London paper 
closed an editorial. They serve as the keynote of the expressions of sorrow 
which the newspapers lavished in memory of the Queen whom all of them 
delighted to honor. 

All the London papers appeared in heavy mourning borders, with edi- 
torials eulogistic of the Queen and recalled the leading events and character- 
istics of her reign. 



TRIBUTES TO THE DEAD QUEEN. 205 

The Daily Mail said: 

"We can but regret that the Queen was not permitted to see the end of 
the South African struggle. She has been taken from us in a dark hour, 
which, we may hope, is a prelude to the dawn, and when we can ill spare her 
ripe experience and her vast knowledge of measures and men." 

"Let us think of her this morning," said the Daily Chronicle, "by her 
highest title, not by her crown and scepter, but by her own magnificent and 
splendid ideal of womanhood. This it is which touches the heart's core of 
a proud and imperial race. We have lost mother, wife and Queen." 

The Daily Telegraph pubhshed two editorials, under the captions, "The 
Queen" and "The King." In the latter it said: 

"Most happily for him, he has, with infinite credit to himself, passed 
through a period of probation in some ways more difficult and certainly 
more prolonged than that to which any successor to a throne in modern 
times has been subjected. He assumes the burden of his imperial task 
equipped with all the invaluable experience which the most painstaking dis- 
charge of great duties could secure him during the lifetime of his august 
mother. 

"So accustomed have we become to his direct, personal patronage of 
eveiy charity and every beneficent movement, many of which he initiated 
himself, that we are apt tO' forget the exhausting nature of the strain almost 
daily imposed upon his strength. He has won among the masses of the peo- 
ple a popularity that has been vouchsafed to few of his predecessors." 

"The confidence inspired by her personal character," says the Times, 
"enabled Queen Victoria at many times to use her intimate knowledge with 
effect in smoothing the rugged places of international relations, or in mod- 
ifying a policy which, through sheer inadequacy of information, would have 
led to undesirable friction. We have also to thank the Queen for influence 
of the most potent kind consistently and vigorously used to enforce progres- 
sive ideals of social and personal virtues, of religious faith and Christian life." 

Referring to the conspicuous success of Queen Victoria's reign, the 
Standard said: "There was a time when Republicanism was a serious phrase 
on English lips. To-day no whisper of discontent with the monarchical con- 



20G TRIBUTES TO THE DEAD QUEEN. 

stitiition breaks the mourning of a loyal nation around the bier of the sov- 
ereign. It will be said of her in the annals of our land that she strengthened 
the throne by loving the people, and that she was a great Queen and the 
mother of Kings because she was a good, noble and true-hearted woman." 

The Morning Post said the great distinctive feature which marked the 
reign of Victoria was religion. "Never," it said, "did the departure of one 
soul cause such deep feelings of pain to so many hearts." 

Henry Labouchere in Truth paid a remarkable tribute to Queen Victoria, 
a tribute all the more remarkable because of his democratic ideas and frank 
criticisms of royalty: 

"Among all her millions of subjects," he wrote, "there are but few who 
will not mourn for her loss as for one of their own household. Nor will the 
mourners be found among her own subjects alone. 

"It is not too much to say that never in the history of the world has a 
single death caused such universal grief. Alike in happiness and sorrow, she 
lived a life beyond reproach, without thought of self, and unreservedly 
devoted to the duties of the hour. x\lthough occupying perhaps the proud- 
est position ever filled by a woman, and never wanting in a certain queenly 
dignity, her tastes, habits, demeanor, and even her dress, were marked by the 
rarest simplicity." 

One of the most beautiful tributes to the dead Queen was that of Pope 

Leo XIII., who expressed the following exquisite sentiment in a cablegram 

from Rome to Cardinal Vaughan, the only English Cardinal, in which he 

asked that the feeling of sorrow which all Christendom shared with England 

be expressed to the English Royal Family: 

"The Hberal reign of the Queen, which has permitted the CathoHc 
Church still to increase in the United Kingdom, will leave an indelible trace 
upon all Christian hearts." 



A Boer partisan expressed himself as follows: 

"The mailed hand of British power, which too often has struck down the 
right in other lands, was not the hand of the Queen. 

"And, oh, the pity of it, that the war to which she was opposed, now 



TRIBUTES TO THE DEAD QUEEN. 209 

being waged against a little people in South Africa, should sadden her last 
days and prevent her reaching her end in peace. 

"As she lay dying in her fruitful years it was the majesty of a noble 
woman which surrounded her rather than the majesty of a monarch. 

"TUNIS G. BERGEN, 
"Member of the Boer Relief Committee." 

While the Queen lay dying Paul Kruger, President of the former South 
African Republic, which was annexed to the British Empire in the fall of 
1900, shortly before Mr. Kruger fled from his country to Europe, sent her 
a respectful message of sympathy, but she was unconscious, and never knew 
of it. 

Robert T. Lincoln, son of President Abraham Lincoln, and formerly 
United States Minister to England, said : 

"Queen Victoria was one of the wisest women — probably the wisest 
woman that ever lived. I do not mean to say that she was a genius, but her 
great gift of common sense, re-enforced by her vast store of knowledge, 
enabled her to counsel men and women of all classes and conditions with 
wisdom that could not be excelled," 

Mr. John Hay, the Secretary of State in the Cabinet of the President of 
the United States, who had but a short time previously resigned the post 
of United States Ambassador to. Great Britain to accept the Cabinet port- 
folio, was affected. He made feeling reference to Her Majesty's character 
and her popularity. 



CHAPTER XI. 

Obsequies of Queen Victoria the Most Magnificent Naval Spectacle Ever Seen on 
Earth— Miles of Formidable Battleships, Almost Every Nation Being Repre- 
sented — Millions of Sorrowing People Reverently Gaze Upon the Funeral 
Pageant as it Passes Through the Streets of London to Windsor — Fifty 
Emperors, Kings and Princes Follow the Bier — The Great Ruler Laid to 
Rest Beside Her Husband in the Beautiful Mausoleum at Frogmore. 

THE obsequies of Queen Victoria constituted the most magnificent 
and sublime spectacle the world ever saw. There had never been a 
display by any nation on earth of fighting power to compare with it. 

From Cowes, Isle of Wight, to Portsmouth, on the English mainland, 
the royal yacht Alberta, carrying the casket containing the body of the 
beloved ruler, passed between lines of battleships, cruisers, torpedo-boats, 
and other engines of naval warfare, representing not only England but 
nearly every other country on the globe. 

The ceremonies in connection with the funeral were properly begun at 
noon on the ist of February, 1901, when the Bishop of Westminster con- 
ducted a service in the chapel and drawing-room of Osborne House. 

The chapel, in which the Queen's body lay, opened immediately upon 
the hall of Osborne House. The house has wings, which stand forward on 
either side of the main building, and it was alongside these wings and facing 
the center, that the group, consisting of the coffin-bearers, the escort, and 
others, was gathered. 

The casket was moved to the end of the hall after the services and a new 
pall spread over it. This was of ivory satin, with a great cross of cloth of 
gold down the center and the royal arms embossed in the corners. A larga 
artificial crown had been placed at the head of the coffin and the real jeweled 
sceptre at the foot. 

At I o'clock, an hour later, Osborne House looked tenantless and still. 

The shadow of the south wing slowly lessened as the afternoon advanced, 

210 



OBSEQUIES OF QUEEN VICTORIA. 211 

allowing the sunshine to rest on the glass porch over the Queen's entrance. 
The lawns were white with frost where the firs and other evergreen sheltered 
the grass. 

The only sign of death, except the white drawn blinds, was the bright 
royal standard at half mast on the tower over the three-storied house. 

Soon after i o'clock the red-coated soldiers of the Queen's Company of 
the Grenadier Guards, bearing a great purple silk flag with a cloth of gold 
crown worked in it, entered the quadrangle and faced the royal entrance. 

Then the first military order was heard, when the officer in command 
said : "Rest on your arms reversed." The men leaned on the butts of their 
rifles in an attitude of mute grief, like the four watchers who guarded the 
coffin in the chapel. 

Meanwhile officers in brilliant uniforms, who were attending royal per- 
sonages, kept passing in at the south entrance. 

A six-horse gun carriage with a twelve-pounder below the platform for 
the coffin passed under the glass porch, the men wearing the blue uniforms 
and yellow braided jackets of the Royal Horse Artillery. 

The carriage was halted at the door of Osborne House. A group of the 
Alberta's bluejackets stood behind the artillerymen. 

The Queen's Highlanders, wearing short blue jackets with silver buttons, 
the royal Stuart tartan and kilts and white horsehair sporrans, entered the 
royal doorway at i :20 o'clock, and ten minutes later from within the house, 
through the glass porch, the cloaked coffin was borne into the sunlight and 
placed at rest on the gun carriage. 

Then, bareheaded, came the Queen's male descendants. King Edward 
Vn. of England, and Emperor of India, Emperor William H. of Germany, 
and the Duke of Connaught, formed the first row. The King and the Kaiser 
wore the uniforms of British Admirals and the Duke of Connaught that of a 
British General. 

Prince Arthur of Connaught, Prince Henry of Prussia, and the Duke of 
Saxe-Coburg and Gotha followed the first line. The young Duke of Saxe- 
Coburg and Gotha looked boyish in the uniform of a Colonel and with top 
boots. 



212 OBSEQUIES OF QUEEN VICTORIA. 

The naval and military equerries, in white-plumed hats and full uniform, 
and wearing their various orders, lined each side of the gun carriage. 

At 1 140 o'clock the procession started in bright sunshine. 

The Queen's Company of Grenadiers, with the Queen's colors, presented 
arms and formed in double column, through which the gun carriage passed. 
On the lawn facing the entrance to Osborne House the households of the 
late Queen and of King Edward and Queen Alexandra were formed in line. 

From the Queen's gate the full procession moved off in the following 
order: 

Mounted Grooms. 

The Deputy Assistant Adjutant General of the Southern District. 

A Detachment of the Hampshire Carbineers. 

The Lieutenant Governor of the Isle of Wight and Staff of the Southern 

District. 

Staff of the Commander-in-Chief at Portsmouth. 

The General Commanding the Southern District. 

The Naval Commander-in-Chief. 

Massed Bands and Drums of the Royal Marine Artillery and of the Royal 

Marine Light Infantry, Who Played a Funeral March as They Passed 

Out of the Queen's Gate. 

The Queen's Highlanders. 

The Queen's Pipers. 

The Gun Carriage, Drawn by Eight Horses and Preceded and Followed by 

Her Late Majesty's Equerries and Aids-de-Camp, Escorted by the 

Queen's Company of Grenadier Guards, With the Coffin. 

King Edward VII. of England. 

Emperor William II. of Germany. 

The Duke of Connaught. 

The Crown Prince of Germany. 

Prince Henry of Prussia. 

Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein. 

The Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. 

Prince Battenberg. 

Queen Alexandra of England. 

The Duchess of York. 

The Duchess of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. 

Princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein. 

Princess Louise (Duchess of Argyll). 

Princess Beatrice (Princess Henry of Battenberg). 

* The Duchess of Connaught. 

The Duchess of Albany. 



OBSEQUIES OF QUEEN VICTORIA. 213 

Princess Victoria of Wales. 

Princess Charles of Denmark. 

Her Late Majesty's Ladies in Waiting. 

Her Late Majesty's Household. 

The Household of the King-. 

The Household of the Queen. 

The Household of Emperor William. 

The Household of the Royal Family. 

Military Officers, Eight Abreast, 

The Royal Servants and Tenants. 

The King, Emperor William, and the Duke of Connaught, walking 
abreast, stepped slowly and mournfully, a sad-looking group in spite of the 
brilliancy of their uniforms. The King's features were seared and bore the 
mark of grief. His head was bowed. But, in all that assemblage, there will 
ever stand out one face — that of the German Em.peror. Its tanned, almost 
olive, contours were turned towards the sun, and his mustache-brushed 
upper lip enhanced the firmness of his chin. It was apparent that the 
Emperor was undergoing a mental strain. 

Then the most truly pathetic feature of the day came in view. It was a 
simple little band in black, for all the world like the sisters of some religious 
order mourning humbly for one of their order who had passed away. None 
was distinguishable from the others. All wore plain black dresses, with long 
crepe veils, and they followed meekly and with downcast heads. Yet the 
first was Alexandra, Queen of England, and with her was the Duchess of 
York, the woman who, if she lives, will also hold the proud title. Behind 
them walked the women to whom every knee in England, however noble, 
is bowed in courtesy. 

The procession marched slowly down the winding cedar-hedged path 
until the gate was reached, where the glittering military escort was met, the 
massed bands breaking out with a dead march and the cortege pursuing its 
sluggish way in the midst of intense silence, save the music of the bands. 

As the khaki-colored gun carriage, followed by the King, with the 
Emperor of Germany and the Duke of Connaught on his right and left, 
passed down the hill, all hats were doffed. 

The mounted grooms who headed the line wore bright scarlet. With 



214 OBSEQUIES OF QUEEN VICTORIA. 

the massed bands were no fewer than forty muffled drums. Among the 
Highlanders were seven Queen's Foresters, in royal tartan, following whom 
pipers wailed the sad music of the Black Watch's dirge. 

The pipers had followed the first dirge by the touching lament, "The 
Flowers of the Forest," which represents the withering of the last and best 
of them. As they reached the Queen's gate and wailed their closing strain 
the muffled drum-s rolled out with oft-recurring rhythmic beats and the 
massed bands burst forth into the magnificent music of Chopin's "Funeral 
March." 

Off went every hat, evei^ woman courtesied low, the troops reversed 
arms and leaned their bended heads over them, still as statues, pictures of 
unutterable woe. Down hill went the sad procession, through the still and 
silent ranks of the people. No sound but that of the mournful march could 
be heard, but that was echoed far away to the spectators on the neighboring 
hills and to the ships far out at sea. 

The roadway from the gate to the pier was lined with troops in close 
order. The troops remained in position until the minute guns from the 
fleet commenced to fire. 

After leaving Osborne House the mourning processions of Kings and 
Princes neared the pier without incident. The sun sparkled on the royal 
gems, reflecting a thousand rays. The strains of Chopin's "Funeral March," 
rising sweetly in the almost summer air, gave warning to the naval officers 
on the pier that the coffin was drawing near. The flag flying from the staff 
within the ivy-covered court was hoisted to the masthead, the band ceased 
and there was no sound heard save the splash by the boatmen who clustered 
near the dock. The surrounding quays were black with expectant thou- 
sands. Through the court archway came the few staff officers, then the 
Highlanders, their pipes silent, and all heads bared. 

Eight bronzed and bearded tars were drawn up, waiting to receive their 
burden. Then came the Grenadiers, resplendent in their busbies and scarlet, 
and quickly formed a circle around the court. 

A second later the King and the Emperor and their suites appeared. As 
the carriage stopped before the gangway of the Alberta loud orders rang 



OBSEQUIES OF QUEEN VICTORIA. 215 

out, a sharp movement ran through the stalwart line of Grenadiers, their 
arms were instantly reversed up to their hats and with equal precision came 
the hands of the Emperor, King and the Duke of Connaught in stately 
salute. The King was tired from the walk. The equerries removed the 
regalia, the royalties still standing at the salute, while behind them the 
Princesses bowed their heads, visibly fatigued. 

The light oak of the cof^n shone out as the sailors grasped the handles. 
The young Crown Prince of Germany could scarcely keep his hand at the 
salute for emotion. With perfect precision the coffin was lifted off the gun 
carriage and carried on board the yacht. 

The awnings were thrown up, showing the glittering jeweled scepter, 
with two gold orbs surmounted by jeweled crosses resting at the bottom 
of the pall, the large crown at the head of the royal standard between. 

The crimson velvet-covered dais on the Alberta was so placed that the 
body rested at athwartship, a few feet forward of the yellow funnel, and 
flanked by two pedestals, on which were anchors formed of the choicest 
flowers, from the officers of the four naval commands, Portsmouth, Daven- 
port, the Home, and the Channel squadron, "as a slight token of loving 
devotion to their Queen." 

Once more the Grenadiers came to the "present" as the King, followed 
by his relatives,, stepped down the gangway, and the regalia and robes were 
replaced on the coffin. 

The King then boarded a steam launch and went ofif to the royal yacht. 
Shortly afterward the other royalties boarded the royal yachts, and the 
Alberta, with her solemn burden, moved away from the pier and passed the 
ships which lay waiting in the sunlit Solent. 

Not until the Alberta was almost out of sight did the troops lining the 
streets of East Cowes break ranks. A splendid conglomeration of color, 
they converged to the water's edge and embarked on tugs and steamers. 

The two points of the land ceremony that seemed to specially rivet atten- 
tion were the gems of the regalia and the veiled Queen and Princesses. 

The evident fatigue of Queen Alexandra and the Princesses appealed to 
all. An old inhabitant, when the troops came to the "reverse" for the last 



216 TEN MILES OF GREAT SHIPS OF WAR. 

time and the Alberta began to move off, muttered, "She has been here many 
a time, but this is the last." 

TEN MILES OF GREAT SHIPS OF WAR. 

The brig-ht waters between the Isle of Wight and the mainland were 
almost a mockery of brilliance as the Alberta steamed slowly towards Ports- 
mouth. 

The haze of the morning had disappeared, and there was nothing but the 
frosty, nipping air to suggest that it was not regatta week in summer or a 
reproduction of the great naval review of 1897. 

The sun shone on the dazzling waters, which rippled under a gentle 
breeze. Spithead and the entrance to Portsmouth harbor were faintly 
visible, eleven miles from Cowes. 

The path thereto lay through a great lane of warships. They included 
some of the greatest fighting machines of the world; in line were also 
German, French, Spanish, Japanese, Belgian, and even Portuguese men- 
of-war. 

The fleet lay silent and motionless, save for the occasional flashing by 
of the torpedo boats, until 2 150 o'clock, when a gun fired by the guardship 
Australia in Cowes harbor seemed to have an echo eleven miles long. 

It was almost like a single drawn out puff of smoke on each side of the 
chain as the minute guns announced the departure of the water cortege. 

Its journey of sound, delayed by varying distance, came back like long- 
drawn peals of thunder. 

Within a few moments every warship manned its sides with bluejackets 
along the rails and sailors were also in the tops. Marines in their bright red 
uniforms were grouped aft, lending the only touch of color, besides the 
gold-laced officers on the bridges. 

The fleet remained without flags, with the exception of a small Union 
Jack and white ensign flying fore and aft at half mast on each vessel. 

It was precisely 3 o'clock when the torpedo boats entered the lane, fol- 
lowed by the yacht Alberta, bearing the royal cof^n, and the attendant 
British royal yachts and Emperor William's yacht Hohenzollern. 




w 

H 
O 

>^ 

f^ 

< 

u 

m 
H 

< 

< 
>^ 
o 

S3 

^< 

Uffi 

EH 

hO 

H« 
W;z; 

W 




O 
CO 

Q 



W 

< 

o 

c/> 

w 

p^ 
o 
w 
o 

hi 

CO 



o 

> 

pa 

CO 

W 
K 

CO 

w 
'^ 

O 

< 
O 

< 
P^ 

w 

CO 
< 

p:; 
o 

u 

> 

w 
a 




KING EDWARD VII.'S FIRST ACT OF GOVERNMENT; HIS MAJESTY 

SUBSCRIBING THE OATH FOR THE SECURITY OF 

THE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND. 



TEN MILES OF GREAT SHIPS OF WAR. 217 

As the funeral yacht came abreast each vessel fired a salute, the din 
being deafening. 

One or two officers, including Admiral Fullerton, stood on the bridge. 
The only flags displayed were the royal standard and the Admiralty Union 
Jack. Nothing else could be seen until the Alberta was nearly alongside 
the various vessels of the waiting fleet. 

The awning in the stem of the Alberta nearly hid the object which all 
eyes were straining to see, but when opposite each ship, and while the band 
of each man-of-war played Beethoven's "Funeral March," the men of the 
British navy saw the coffin of their sovereign. It was arranged the same 
as in the Chapel Ardente at Osborne. 

The main squadron of battleships and cruisers was moored two and 
a half cables apart, in one line, extending from Cowes to Spithead. 

The channel fleet, under command of Vice Admiral Sir Henry Holds- 
worth Rawson, formed the eastern portion, and the reserve fleet, under Rear 
Admiral Sir Gerard Henry Woel, formed the western portion. 

The foreign war vessels were moored southwest of the British ships, in 
the order of their arrival, and alongside of them were moored eight British 
gunboats, the Antelope, Gleaner, Skipjack, Leda, Rattlesnake, Alert, Circe, 
and Speedwell. 

The main line was as follows, beginning at Cowes : 

The Alexandra, Camperdown, Rodney, Benbow, Collingwood, Colossus, 
Sans Rareil, Nile, Howe, Melampus, Severn, Galatea, Bellona, Pactolus, 
Pelorus, Diana, Conqueror, Arrogant, Minerva, Niobe, Hero, Hood, Tra- 
falgar, Resolution, Jupiter, Hannibal, Mars, Prince George, and Majestic. 

The guns of each warship ceased firing when the Alberta had gone by, 
and the marines "reversed arms." But they and all the crews remained at 
their stations while the fleet steamers from the shores, their decks solid 
masses of black, crowded with thousands of the Queen's subjects, raised 
their anchors, and followed outside the line of warships. 

Gradually the din of the minute guns lessened as the batteries of ship 
after ship ceased firing, while the funeral parade swept around the end of the 
line and into the entrance of Portsmouth harbor. 



218 THE BODY AT PORTSMOUTH. 

It was 5 o'clock when the echoes of the last gun ceased. The sun was a 
great red globe, sinking to the hilltops, the clouds began to fall again upon 
the channel, and the body ol the Queen was safe in Portsmouth harbor. 

RECEPTION OF THE BODY AT PORTSMOUTH. 

Three special trains brought down the members of the House of Lords 
and of the House of Commons, the diplomats, and other officials to Ports- 
mouth from Victoria Station to Portsmouth early in the morning. A snowy 
frost was sprinkled over the green fields under a glistening sun whose rays 
were sifted through a typical English mist, while half-masted Union Jacks 
were hung from many buildings in the town along the road. A great royal 
standard drooped from the staff above the ancient gray tower of Arundel 
tower, the Duke of Norfolk's seat. 

The members of Parliament embarked on a small steamer, and were 
entertained at luncheon as guests of the Admiralty. A fog had settled over 
the still waters of the Solent through which warships appeared like great 
shapeless black rocks. 

The foreign ships attracted most of the attention of the English spec- 
tators. Giant of the whole fleet was the Japanese battleship Hatsus, the 
largest war machine afloat, a fortress of clay-colored steel, with the scarlet 
sun on a white field hanging at the stern, the fighting emblem of the young- 
est world power. 

Emperor William's navy was represented by Nymphe, Victoria Luise, 
Hegen, and Baden, all blue-gray colored upperworks. The Hegen was 
flying Prince Henry of Prussia's flag — yellow arms on a white field. 

The Dupuy de Lome, under France's tri-color, was a fine sight. It was 
built with a prow-fronted long ram, high out of the water, 

Portugal was represented by the cruiser Don Carlos. The ill fortune 
of Spain's navy asserted itself at the last moment, for word came that 
Emperador Carlos V. had turned back from its trip to the port with crippled 
engines. 

When the Alberta entered Portsm.outh harbor with the minute g-uns in 
the forts sounding, the bells of all the churches of the city tolling, the ancient 



LONDON'S MILLIONS PAY TRIBUTE. 219 

frigate Victory, moored there, fired a salute of muzzle-loaders. The marines 
on deck stood at arms. The Admiral's band played a dirge. 

The escorting torpedo boat destroyers drew ahead and steamed to their 
berths, and the Alberta was moored in Clarence Yard. A guard of a hun- 
dred marines marched on board. 

During the night the quarter-deck where the bier rested was lighted by 
electricity. 

The King's yacht was made fast to a buoy in midstream, with the Hohen- 
zollern lying near. The royal personages and their suites dined on board 
and passed the night there. 

Steam launches with armed guards patroled around both yachts all night. 

To those who visited the fleet in the early morning the scene contrasted 
strangely with the brilliant pageant which was witnessed in the Solent in 
1897. Instead of the gayety and animation of that busy day, Spithead wore 
an air of genuine sadness, which the calm of the beautiful morning failed 
to dispel. 

Though the sun shone brightly over the headlands, a gray mist hung 
over the sea. Here and there an excursion steamer filled with sightseers 
passed silently along the line, or a yacht or a steamer went tO' its position. 
But the great fleet seemed lifeless. Scarcely a small boat was afloat, and, 
except for the white ensigns which hung listlessly at half-mast and the occa- 
sional flutter of signal bunting from the flagship, there was no glimpse of 
color to relieve the monotonous grayness of the scene. 

LONDON'S MILLIONS PAY THEIR TRIBUTE. 

England paid its last tribute to Queen Victoria when the body of the 
adored ruler was borne along through the streets of London between lanes 
of black-robed, silent, grief-stricken millions — Saturday, February 2d, 1901. 

After all the gorgeousness of official grief, the most Impressive was the 
grief of the millions of common people, who thronged the streets of London 
and filled St. James' and Hyde Parks in an effort to catch one last glimpse 
of the casket that held all that was mortal of that Queen they loved. 

No greater tribute to "^^ictoria's reign was ever presented than this silent 



220 LONDON'S MILLIONS PAY TRIBUTE. 

homage of the people, dressed in simple black, and who were content to 
stand for hours in the cold of a London winter day in order to witness the 
passing of the Queen on her last ride through her capital. 

Never did a funeral procession of a great sovereign represent so much; 
never did so small a cavalcade contain so many Princes and potentates. 

The funerals of President Caniot and President MacMahon and other 
state funerals, both of republics and of monarchies, were filled with the grim 
splendor of sight and sound that impressed the sense and appealed to the 
imagination. . 

The transit of Victoria's ashes from deathbed to tomb, through the 
streets of London, was a thing apart, a spectacle that even yet seems not 
quite of earth. It is easier to believe it a wonderful dreamland allegory 
which typified the majesty of death and the submission of Emperors and 
Kings to the last great Leveler. 

Friday it w^as a tribute of Neptune; Saturday it was a tribute of Mars. 
Both could be commanded by the mere sovereignty of clay on which the 
crown and scepter rested in the day's procession. But no government or 
other human authority could have commanded the supreme tribute which 
Briton and alien alike, the heart of mankind itself, paid to Victoria's memory. 
The day on which, for the last time Englishmen assembled in their hun- 
dreds of thousands to pay homage to the person of their departed Queen, 
dawned chill and gray. It was in keeping with the feeling of mourning of 
the nation. Not a glimmer of sunshine penetrated the gray clouds and mist 
which were hanging over the city. 

Long before it was fully light thousands of people had taken places along 
the route to be followed by the sad but magnificent pageant. By seven 
o'clock the whole route was lined. Some of these people had been waiting 
from the small hours of the morning, long ere the troops and police appeared 
in force. But the great majority came in an increasing flow from seven 
o'clock up to the hour the train, with its sad burden, was due at Victoria 
Station. 

Here and along the Buckingham Palace road past the palace, where, 
as at Victoria Station, a guard of honor had been mounted, to and through 



LONDON'S MILLIONS PAY TRIBUTE. 221 

St. James' Park, by eight o'clock every available bit of standing room was 
filled by a dense, silent throng. 

On every lamp post hung a large laurel wreath tied with great purple, 
ribbons. This scheme was followed along the whole route of the procession, 
many extra pillars having been erected for the purpose, and its simple effec- 
tiveness was, perhaps, the most striking feature of the plan for mourning 
display. 

Every house was draped with lines of purple hangings, and the purple 
covered stands were already half filled. The spectators were garbed in the 
deepest mourning, and so it was with the whole multitude that lined the 
streets. Practically every one was dressed in black. 

St. James' Park presented a somber spectacle. A deep line of gray- 
coated troops and pohce in dark uniforms standing before the black mass 
of the people made clear the roadway, which was strewn deep with brown 
gravel and looked strangely bright even under the gloomy, threatening sky. 

As far down as St. James' street everything at eight o'clock was as if 
it were already noon, save that the gigantic purple-covered stands for the 
members of the Houses of Lords and Commons, which faced the south wall 
of St. James' Palace, had not yet been occupied. 

St. James' street and Piccadilly to Hyde Park corner were, at first, a 
scene of bewildering confusion. Here the public stands were few, but the 
windows and balconies of the clubhouses and private residences afforded a 
view for thousands. 

Along these streets was the most elaborate display of mourning drapery. 
The royal purple in every material — silk, cloth, and velvet — draped the win- 
dows, balconies, and porticoes, while countless wreaths of palm and laurel 
encircling gold and silver devices of "V. R. I." were affixed to shields 
covered with purple velvet. 

Here and there black deepened the effect or white relieved it. At this 
point, on stands and balconies and in the open windows, the almost unbroken 
black lines, one over the other, of onlookers Iiad the greatest effect, for here 
were the wealthy, whose mourning dress, especially that of the women, was 
complete. 



222 LONDON'S MILLIONS PAY TRIBUTE. 

The scene on the streets up to ten o clock defies description. Carriages 
and cabs were mixed in seemingly inextricable confusion. The streets were 
black with thousands of pedestrians, and bodies of troops, which were con- 
stantly marching along to strengthen the police lines, could scarcely force 
a passage. 

As the troops pushed through the crowd in broken order, from every 
side street fresh crowds poured unceasingly. It seemed as though a 
catastrophe scarcely could be avoided, but the infinite patience of every one, 
combined with the decorous behavior of even the roughest denizens of the 
East End, averted it. 

Through Apsley Gate until ten o'clock streamed bodies of foot and 
mounted troops. Behind the great gate was a string of carriages bringing 
guests to the clubs and the great houses, but many never reached their seats. 
The crowd here was so enormous that the military officer in command for- 
bade the exit of vehicles after half past nine o'clock, and many women and 
children were utterly unable to penetrate the serried ranks which lined 
Piccadilly. 

There was a similar scene at Hyde Park. Here there was no mourning 
drapery and no laurel on the lamp posts. Through the leafless trees could 
be seen the purple draped mansions of Park Lane. The park was never- 
theless more completely decked in mourning than any other spot. 

If in the vast multitude spread over its wide space — thousands of whom 
could not hope to catch even a glimpse of the passing procession — there 
were many who were not dressed in black, they were so few comparatively 
that they could not be distinguished. 

London's famous park was laid with a living carpet of black. In fact, 
this black-garbed multitude, which stretched on from Victoria Station 
through the districts mentioned, then from the Marble Arch along Edge- 
ware road and Oxford and Cambridge terraces to Paddington Station, three 
and a half miles in all, was the dominating element. 

In the display of mourning the universal hangings of purple had to be 
looked for, but the sad, continuous blackness of this three and a half miles 
of men, women and children was a sight which impressed one strangely. 



DEPARTURE FROM PORTSMOUTH. 223 

There they stood, hour after hour, with none of the music or cheering 
such as they had been used to. The scene was one of black, mournful 
silence. 

An estimate of the number in the crowd was well nigh impossible. The 
side streets leading to and parallel with the route of the funeral were filled 
with thousands of people unable to reach the thoroughfare through which 
the cortege passed. Every minute added to their numbers, and it seemed 
as though all London was making for the West End without the slightest 
chance of reaching the line of the procession. 

About ten o'clock a light rain began to fall, but it was scarcely sufficient 
to do more than damp the waiting multitudes. 

DEPARTURE OF THE CORTEGE FROM PORTSMOUTH. 

The departure of the funeral cortege from Portsmouth was made at an 
early hour. The coffin containing the Queen's body, covered with a white 
silken pall, on top of which were three crowns and the crystal orb and 
jeweled scepter, was transferred from the royal yacht Alberta to the funeral 
train shortly before nine o'clock. 

A crowd of privileged persons stood bareheaded on the station platform, 
and many of them were scarcely able to restrain their emotion as the coffin 
was lifted into the Queen's special salon carriage, decorated with purple 
emblems of mourning, and reverently placed on a raised platform in the 
center of the car. 

Four guards were stationed at the four corners of the coffin, with arms 
reversed, the gun barrel resting on the right foot and their heads inclined 
on the stocks. 

King Edward, Emperor William, and other members of the royal family 
then took their places in the carriages reserved for them, the train drew 
out of the station, and the journey to London began. 

The funeral train was slightly delayed in reaching Victoria Station, but 
this did not hinder the punctual execution of the London program. The 
train guards report that it seemed as if the train ran through an endless line 
of black-clad, bareheaded people for the whole eighty miles of its journey. 



224 DEPARTURE FROM PORTSMOUTH. 

The train drew up at the Victoria platform opposite a large purple 
pavilion, in which were waiting the Kings of Greece, Portugal, and Belgium 
and the representatives of other foreign sovereigns. 

King Edward was the first to alight. He stepped forward immediately 
to greet his royal guests. He was clad in the uniform of a field marshal, 
over which was thrown a black cloak. His Majesty looked extremely worn 
and weary, and it was evident that the great strain of the last fortnight had 
taxed his powers most severely. 

Emperor William, who quickly joined the King, was similarly clothed. 
His military figure and almost pallid face gave him, perhaps, a more impres- 
sive bearing than that of the King. 

The two monarchs remained for a few moments within the pavilion, 
forming, with their guests, perhaps the most remarkable group of crowned 
heads ever assembled in one spot. 

The other members of the royal party left the train meanwhile, and the 
humble vehicle which was to carry Victoria's body through the capital drew 
up beside the Queen's salon carriage, where the bier was still under the 
guardianship of four of her soldiers. 

A detail consisting of an officer and twelve men of the Guards and the 
Household Cavalry presently performed their last duty to her by lifting the 
coffin from the car and placing it upon the gun carriage, the royal party 
and guests standing silent and uncovered during its brief transit. 

Within ten minutes after entering the station all was ready, and at 1 1 :20 
o'clock the signal was given for the last march to begin. 

Meantime the black masses of London's populace had grown denser 
at every point along the route. Thousands upon thousands of people were 
content to stand mute in places where, by no possibility, could they get a 
view of any part of the parade. They stood for hours thus, without strug- 
gling to gain vantage ground, seemingly satisfied to bear testimony simply 
by their presence to their love and loyalty to their Queen. 

Just as the line started on its way to Paddington there was a fitful gleam 
of wintry sunshine which rested for a few moments upon the crown, scepter, 




< 

X 

o 

I— t 

< 
O 

D 

i — > 
Q 
< 

< 

o 
<: 

H 
H 

o 
u 

p^ 
o 
>^ 



TROOPS REPRESENTING FOUR KINGDOMS. 227 

and other insignia lying upon the simple funeral chariot; then it disappeared, 
and Victoria crossed her capital for the last time under cold gray skies. 

First rode a single officer of the headquarters staff, followed by three 
bands from the Household Cavalry. It seemed strange not to hear the 
familiar strains of the "Dead March" on such an occasion, but it was by 
the Queen's own wish that the sweeter measures of Beethoven and Chopin 
stilled the ears of her mourning subjects. 

Volunteers headed the line. They were represented by the Second Mid- 
dlesex Rifles, the First Middlesex Engineers, and the Tynemouth Artillery. 
Young and boyish they looked in the neat service uniforms. 

The Warwickshire Yeomanry followed, and their presence, like that of 
the Volunteers, was significant of the important place these last reserves of 
the British forces held in public estimation by reason of the long war in 
South Africa. 

Most significant of all the imperial forces represented in the cortege was 
the section which came next. It was a small detachment from the Colonial 
corps, as made up from such representatives as happened tO' be in London. 
Many Englishmen took off their hats when these men went by, as they did 
afterward to the royal coffin and to the King. They would like to have 
cheered had the occasion been less sad. 

TROOPS WHICH REPRESENTED FOUR KINGDOMS. 

Four bodies of the militia came next. They were the home battalions 
of the Gordon Highlanders, the Welsh Fusileers, the Royal Irish Regiment, 
and the Norfolk Regiment — representing four kingdoms. They also were 
young men, but well drilled. 

Detachments of individual representatives of the Honorable Artillery 
company, the Army Veteran department, the army pay corps, the ordnance 
corps, the chaplains' department, the medical corps, and the army service 
corps were next in line. 

Representatives of the people of India, the most numerous class of Her 
Majesty's subjects, followed. They were the men who hailed her as Empress 
instead of Queen, and whose dark faces seemed filled with grief and despair 



228 TROOPS REPRESENTING FOUR KINGDOMS. 

of a deeper intensity perhaps than all the others. There were not many 
representatives of the Indian army, but none were watched with keener 
interest. 

The regular army cam,e next. Such corps as were not fighting in South 
Africa were the most representative selection, including, of course, the flower 
of the army, and such bodies as always are reserved for home defense and 
as guardians of the person of the sovereign. 

The most striking sight in the whole escort was that of a company of 
Grenadiers which had been selected to accompany the Duke of York on 
his Australian visit. This wonderful body of men was of an average height 
of six feet ten inches, surpassing all military records. Several members were 
between seven feet three and seven feet four. No more imposing sight 
could be imagined than these giants in their fine uniforms and splendid 
accoutrements. 

The infantry of the line represented comprised the Fourth Battalion of 
the Rifle Brigade, the Royal Irish Fusileers, the Highland Light Infantry, 
the King's Royal Rifle Corps, the Royal Fusileers, and the Lancaster Regi- 
ment. The Foot Guards formed the next division, and included the Irish, 
Scotch, and Cold Stream Grenadiers, and a corps of the Royal Engineers, 
all marching in close order. 

The artillery was represented by three batteries, the Royal Garrison, the 
Royal Field, and the Royal Horse. Then came the cavalry, the Twenty- 
first Lancers, with their bright lances leading. The dark-coated Hussars 
and the helmeted Dragoons of the Household Cavalry, which were attached 
to the sovereign on all great occasions, came last. Of the regular army the 
bright red coats and plumed helmets of the Royal Horse Guards led, and 
two battalions of the Life Guards followed. 

The navy received an honored place in the line and there was nothing 
more impressive than the sight of a battalion of blue jackets of the Marine 
Light Infantry, marching under straw hats and with reversed arms. A few 
guns and the khaki-colored marine artillery completed the escort. 

The figure of Field Marshal Earl Roberts, Commander-in-Chief of the 
British forces, mounted on a dark horse and carrying a field marshal's baton, 



PASSING OF THE QUEEN'S COFFIN. 229 

then came into view, and at some places the crowds scarce forbore to cheer. 
He was surrounded by foreign military attaches and the members of his 
stafif. 

Four military bands preceded the personal escort of the coffin. One or 
the other of them played the same funeral music as those at the head of the 
line, throughout the entire march. 

SOLEMN PASSING OF THE QUEEN'S COFFIN. 

Then came the moment when the troops lining the route of march pre- 
sented arms and sorrowing multitudes uncovered heads. 

The Duke of Norfolk, Earl Marshal of England, with a bewildering 
array of members of his staff and officials of the royal household, passed, but 
none saw them. Every eye looked beyond to that lowly bier, resting upon 
the grim, khaki-colored gun carriage. 

It seemed smalll — that plain receptacle of so precious a burden. No 
flowers, no wreath, no ornament save the simple insignia of her rank, distin- 
guished the burial cart which carried the body of the dead Queen through 
her capital. 

The white satin pall, rich in texture, might have been a simple sheet so 
far as the ordinary onlooker could see. The royal standard seemed to have 
been half furled and flung carelessly across it. The crown and scepter and 
Knight of the Garter insignia served only to intensify the simplicity and 
pathos of the unpretentious funeral carriage. 

Dragging — it might so be expressed — the nation's sorrow, were eight 
cream-colored horses which London had not seen since the time in 1897, 
when they drew the Queen through such a storm of acclamations as perhaps 
rLCver greeted the monarch before. 

This day they were caparisoned in deep crimson trappings. Even in their 
manes and tails were interwoven ribbons of what seemed to have been 
adopted as the color of royal mourning. It was a peculiar tint, being neither 
red nor purple, but a blend of crimson and maroon. The postilions were 
similarly attired. 

On each side of the gun carriage walked the bearer party of non-com- 



230 PASSING OF THE QUEEN'S COFFIN. 

missioned officers of the Guards and the Household Cavalry, and imme- 
diately behind them came the royal standard, borne by another officer of 
the Household Cavalry. 

Then came the King of England, riding, his eyes fixed gloomily upon 
the white coffin in front of him. He was mounted on a dark bay horse, and 
his uniform, except his cocked hat, was entirely hidden by a long, black 
cloak, which covered also his horse's haunches. His appearance of weari- 
ness, almost distress, seemed intensified by his dress. 

He was flanked about a pace to the rear by Emperor William of Ger- 
many and the Duke of Connaught. The Emperor was mounted on his 
famous white charger and carried a Field Marshal's baton. In full view his 
face seemed to grow whiter still after leaving Victoria Station, but he was 
keenly alive to all about him. 

King Edward scarcely seemed to manage his reins, letting his horse 
choose his own place and pace as the line sometimes stopped and then 
moved on again. The Emperor, however, and the Duke of Connaught also, 
carefully kept their horses' heads about at the shoulder of that of the King. 

Next came the others of this cavalcade of Kings. King George of 
Greece and King Charles of Portugal rode almost side by side. There were 
Princes and royal Dukes — Henry of Prussia, Christian of Schleswig-Hol- 
stein. Prince Arthur of Connaught, the Crown Prince of Germany, the 
Crown Prince of Roumania, the Duke of Hesse, the Duke of Saxe-Coburg 
and Gotha, the Duke of Sparta, heir to the throne of Greece; the Crown 
Prince of Denmark, the Crown Prince of Sweden and Norway, the Crown 
Prince of Siam, the Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, the Grand Duke 
Michael of Russia, and others of the world's potentates — really too numer- 
ous to mention, and too confusing, in such a kaleidoscope of gold and many 
colors, to identify. 

At the end of this bewildering throng rode a deputation of officers from 
the German army and the personal suite of the Kaiser, only less impressive, 
as splendid specimens of military manhood, than that company of Grena- 
diers among the British escort. 

Last of all were the six state carriages, magnificently caparisoned. The 



JOURNEY FROM LONDON TO WINDSOR. 2^1 

first was drawn by four horses and was a closed chariot, containing the 
Queen and the Princesses Louise, Victoria, and Maud (the latter the Princess 
Charles of Denmark). The windows were closed and the occupants were 
clad in the deepest mourning and could be but dimly seen. 

In the following carriages were Leopold, the aged King of Belgium; 
other Princesses, the Duke o-f Cambridge, Lord Wolseley, and ladies of the 
Queen's household. Two files of troops formed the closing escort. 

The entire line had passed Buckingham Palace at half an hour after noon, 
and the progress through the city was maintained almost exactly according 
to schedule. Everywhere the mourning multitude greeted the cavalcade 
with a silence more impressive than would have been any demonstration of 
emotion. At one or two points only was a voice raised to greet the King, 
and it was instantly silenced by murmurs of "Hush !" from the crowd. The 
spectators dispersed in the same strange silence in wonderful contrast to the 
scenes attending the last public gathering in London a few weeks ago. 

At Paddington Station everything was in readiness for the reception of 
the cortege by noon. Without, packed close to the crimson painted walls, 
stood a huge, expectant throng. Within there was a solemn hush, doubly 
impressive in that it prevailed where the busy, noisy confusion of a great 
railway station usually reigns. 

After the departure of the last ordinary train at ten o'clock, no one was 
admitted to any part of the station save the privileged guests, and they 
were arranged on either side of the entrance from the street. 

THE JOURNEY FROM LONDON TO WINDSOR. 

Inside the station, at the ends of all the departure platforms, on every 
line of rails, stood an empty, silent train. There they stood, covering almost 
the entire station, with no sign of life anywhere and no attempt at mourn- 
ing drapery, but nevertheless strangely, mournfully impressive in the 
unwonted stillness. 

Alongside of the main platform stood the long royal train of salon 
carriages, and slightly forward was the funeral car heavily draped with 
purple hangings in which the coffin was to be conveyed to Windsor. 



232 JOURNEY FROM LONDON TO WINDSOR. 

On the wide platform, the whole length of which was covered with a 
crimson carpet, just opposite the funeral car, was a large circular bed of 
white blossoms and evergreens. 

Ranged in the center of the roadway opposite the funeral car stood a 
Guard of Honor of one hundred marines, at attention with fixed bayonets. 
Before them was an officer with a color sergeant on either side holding up 
the Queen's colors draped in black. 

Shortly after noon a little company of servants entered, carrying a pro- 
fusion of magnificent wreaths, all of white flowers, which they placed in the 
funeral car. Fifteen minutes afterwards the staff officer leading the pro- 
cession entered. Officers, officials, and servants fell into line, and those 
seated stood up and remained so to the end. 

Then the only sound was the slow tramp of troops forming the front 
position of the cortege, still marching in funeral step with arms reversed, 
but in closer order. 

As each command passed the Queen's car rifles were brought to the 
salute, then shouldered, and the men, breaking into double step, passed 
quickly out of the other end of the station. 

Presently the sweet, sad strains of Beethoven's familiar "Funeral 
March" and the low, thrilling roll of thirty muffled side drums penetrated 
the station. A little later the foreign attaches entered and drew up alongside 
the guard of honor; the headquarters staff did likewise. Earl Roberts, 
attended by one aide, entered alone. 

Every hat was instinctively doffed and replaced, but there was not a 
sound save the footsteps of the troops leaving the far end of the station and 
that of the band still playing as they massed at the top platform. 

The Earl Marshal's party and his aids drew up by the headquarters staff. 
Earl Roberts, having dismounted, stood, carrying his baton, near the King's 
salon. 

As the gun carriage entered, a strange hush fell upon the crowd, every 
hat was again removed, and the soldiers saluted until it was drawn up oppo- 
site to the funeral car. When the King with his regal and princely company 
had entered there was, for the first time, and only for a few moments, a 



JOURNEY FROM LONDON TO WINDSOR. 233 

scene of bright kaleidoscopic movement. An army of silk-hatted, black- 
coated grooms rushed forward to lead every rider's charger; Kings, Princes, 
Amachies, and aids dismounted, and in a moment the crimson-carpeted 
platform was covered with a brilliant moving throng. 

In a few seconds, however, all were ranged about the King's salon 
carriage. Then the state carriages entered. The Queen alighted first. She 
was saluted by all on the platform, and the salute was maintained till the 
King had handed Her Majesty into the salon. 

Then the other ladies rapidly passed into their salon carriages and next 
came the moving of the cofifin. Its coverings Vv^ere removed and the plain 
oak brass-mounted casket stood in its bare simplicity upon the khaki-colored 
gun carriage. 

At the moment the gun carriage entered the station the Queen's colors 
were drooped to the ground and the black-draped royal standard upheld. 
Then, with every hand at salute, the bareheaded Guards and Household 
cavalrymen bore the cofifin into the car. 

Within a minute every room of the train was closed on a party such as 
no train ever before carried. Ofificials gave a last brief inspection to each 
car; then the only person left on the platform was a bareheaded Guard carry- 
ing a green flag and giving a look up and down the train. 

He dropped the flag and slowly, silently, almost imperceptibly, the train 
moved out. 

Every eye followed it, every raised hat seemed to be instinctively held 
out towards its retreating form in mute farewell, bands ceased playing, and 
for a few moments all was silence. 

No one moved or spoke. All seemed to realize that the capital of Vic- 
toria's world-wide empire had looked its last upon its best loved monarch. 

The first sound to break the stillness was audible throughout the station. 
It was an officer's sharp, though not loud command, "Raise the colors." 
Then the Guard of Honor marched briskly out and the strangely silent 
assemblage made its way into the busy, congested streets. 

It was near two o'clock when the train departed, and Victoria, Queen 
and Empress, having made her last progress through the heart of her realm. 



234 FINAL SERVICES AT WINDSOR. 

started on her last journey to Windsor, where, in St. George's Chapel, the 
funeral ceremony proper was to be held later in the day. 

THE FINAL SERVICES AT WINDSOR. 

The remains of Queen Victoria were that night lying in state in Albert 
Memorial Chapel, after one of the most impressive services ever held in St. 
George's. 

A dense crowd of people who hoped to avoid the throngs in London by 
going to Windsor had made the streets impassable by eleven o'clock in the 
morning, although it was to be hours before the Queen's body would arrive. 
Purple and black draperies hung from thronged open windows, and all 
along the narrow, stone paved, winding streets were decorations. Crimson- 
cloaked heavy dragoons, finely mounted, were backing their horses toward 
the sidewalks to keep the crowd back along the line of march. 

The infantrymen had their arms stacked and were gathered in groups 
awaiting the order to form. Yeomen of the Guard in the beefeater's garb, 
with gorgeous tunics and red padded hose, passed along frequently. 

A gunshot signaled the arrival of the cortege at Windsor at half past 
two, and thereafter minute guns were fired. 

Immediately after the arrival of the funeral train Queen Alexandra and 
the Princesses drove off to the chapel in closed carriages. As the coffin was 
lifted by Grenadiers the diplomats and officers stood at the salute. 

Hardly had the coffin reached the gun carriage when a dramatic incident 
occurred. The order had just been given to start, the muffled drums rolled, 
and, to the strains of Chopin's funeral march, the head of the procession 
had actually moved off, when it was found impossible to induce the artillery 
horses to move. They had grown cold from long waiting in the biting wind, 
became restive, and narrowly missed overturning the gun carriage. 

The naval Guard of Honor came to the rescue. The order "Pile arms" 
rang out, and the clean-shaven, smart looking handy men marched quickly 
to the front, removed the refractory horse, improvised ropes out of the 
traces, and started the gun carriage with its precious burden towards the 
chapel. 



FINAL SERVICES AT WINDSOR. 235 

The incident occurred at the spot where Roderick MacLean shot at the 
Queen in 1882. The incident delayed the procession only fifteen minutes, 
as by then one hundred and thirty bluejackets had harnessed themselves 
to the gun carriage and the procession moved on at a sluggish pace. 

The coffin, with the same insignia surmounting it as in London, was 
followed by an escort of Life Guards; then came the officials of the Heralds' 
College, Earl Roberts, with the headquarters staff deputations from the 
Prussian regiments, etc. 

King Edward, Emperor William, and the Duke of Connaught followed 
the bier closely. 

After them walked the Princes, foreign representatives, and Yeomen of 
the Guard, with the military and court bringing up the rear. 

The start of the cortege was signalized by minute salutes fired by guns 
posted on the long walk, which were continued until eighty-one shots had 
been fired, one for each completed year of the dead Queen's age. 

As the minute guns boomed from the castle walk the troop of mounted 
Life Guards in scarlet cloaks and white plumes moved like a glow of warmth 
through the bare street between the black, cold-benumbed crowds. Follow- 
ing them came three Pursuivants-at-Arms with their long satin cloaks 
emblazoned with the design of the royal standard. 

The foreign envoys wore resplendent uniforms. Major-General Pole- 
Carew, marching afoot, led his staff in front of a deputation of officers of 
the German cavalry regiment of which the Queen was honorary colonel. 

Following them, after a space, came Earl Roberts, walking alone, hold- 
ing a field marshal's baton. He was greeted as he passed with a hum of 
admiring attention. Earl Roberts walked with a fixed and sorrowful gaze, 
and made no response whatever to the salutations of the onlookers. 

Following him came the band of the Life Guards, playing Beethoven's 
march, and preceding the Duke of Norfolk as Earl Marshal of England 
with the ceremonial officers of the kingdom. 

The officers and their staffs following gave a resplendent, kaleidoscopic 
color to the scene. Every uniform in Europe, mingled with Turkish, Jap- 
anese, and South Americans. 



236 FINAL SERVICES AT WINDSOR. 

The end of the procession entered the gates at three o'clock. The coffin 
was borne past the entire length of the castle to the western entrance of the 
dimly lit St. George's Chapel. 

Before the funeral procession arrived, the chapel already breathed of 
majesty and religion. Near the altar stood the aged Bishop of Oxford, 
Chancellor of the Order of the Garter, covered with a cardinal silk mantle 
to his feet. Other prelates of the order in dark blue velvet gowns and Arch- 
bishops in their convocation robes were ranged along each side of the aisle. 

The great east window, with its faint stained figures, threw a soft Hght 
over this burial and worshiping place of Kings. Before each oaken stall 
glimmered the waxen taper that burns when Knights of the Garter worship 
there. Above their heads, resting upon the carved sabers of the stalls, were 
the special insignia of each Knight, while hanging over this were the motion- 
less banners bearing the strange devices of the members of this most power- 
ful order. On each side of the chancel flamed two rows of candles, causing 
the gold and red of the Knights to glitter. 

In somber contrast with these rows of light and color sat the long line 
of Princesses and ladies-in-waiting, making a foreground of deepest black. 
On the altar two tapers burned, and within the rail on each side stood large 
candelabra. 

The profusion of flowers displayed outside the chapel ceased within. On 
the chancel only a few lilies and the most delicate green ferns were used for 
the altar decorations. 

There was no crape anywhere. 

When the first sound of the military bands announced the arrival of the 
cortege the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Bishop of Winchester, and the 
Dean of Windsor walked from the vestry down to the chancel. The nobles 
rose to their feet and remained standing. Behind the Bishops came the 
choir. 

The sound of the guns saluting was heard and silence fell on the assem- 
blage. Ten minutes passed and Sir Walter Parratt played softly. The 
white-haired statesmen, one by one, dropped into their seats. The strain 
was too much, and the diplomats followed suit. 



FINAL SERVICES AT WINDSOR. 237 

The music of the bands playing could be heard, first faintly, and then 
nearer and nearer, until the majestic roll of the funeral march penetrated 
every corner of the chapel. 

For fifteen minutes the congregation listened to military bands outside. 

Twenty minutes after three o'clock the doors were swung open. "I Am 
the Resurrection" was sung by the choir. Slowly the white-robed boys 
made their way up to the aisle. After the Archbishop of Canterbury came 
the white rods, then the coffin, and then the equerries, carrying the pall and 
regalia. Grenadiers carried the coffin. 

Walking together came the King, Emperor William, and the Duke of 
Connaught. Beside them were the King of the Belgians, the King of 
Greece, and the King of Portugal, and after them came the royal Princes, 
who filled the chancel and aisles and whose suites crowded into the nave. 

As the solemn cortege proceeded up the nave the choir sang "Lord, 
Thou Hast Been Our Refuge" to Felton's setting. 

The coffin was then placed on purple-covered trestles in front of the 
altar, the King at the head and the Archbishop of Canterbury at the foot. 
The mourners and clergy were grouped on the respective sides. Beyond 
these, over toward the closed doors, were a mass of envoys in vari-colored 
dresses which blended solemnly under the dim-Ht, lofty chapel. 

In the front rows of the spectators' pews were all the Privy Councilors, 
irrespective of political affiliations — Prime Minister SaHsbury, the Duke of 
Devonshire, the Right Hon. John Morley, the Right Hon. A. J. Balfour, 
Lord Rosebery, the Right Hon. Henry Campbell-Bannerman, the Right 
Hon. William Edward Lecky, and the Right Hon. William Vernon Har- 
court. It was noticeable that all the Privy Councilors wore the regulation 
dark blue dress and frock coat, gold braided to the neck, with the same 
braid across the breast and over the cuffs and pockets. 

Behind them were black rows of ladies, veiled Hke the mourning Prin- 
cesses, who, with their children, were hidden from view in the adjoining 
King Albert Memorial Chapel. 

Sir Walter Parratt, private organist to the Queen, presided at the organ. 
He played first Chopin's "Funeral March," and followed this with hymn 



238 FINAL SERVICES AT WINDSOR. 

music of Gounod and Tschaikowsky, concluding with Mendelssohn's "Dead 
March." 

The ceremony was the simple burial service, and special prayers were 
omitted. The Archbishops of Canterbury and York, the Bishops of Win- 
chester and Oxford, and all the senior canons of Windsor took part, and 
served to heighten the solemn grandeur of silent tribute from the distin- 
guished envoys of all nations of the world. 

All through the service coald be heard the booming of minute guns on 
the long walk, which were answered like an echo by the tolling of the old 
curfew bell in the great hall. 

The Bishop of Winchester read the lesson from the fifteenth Corinth- 
ians. "Man that is born of woman," was chanted by the choir to Wesley's 
music, followed by "Thou knowest, Lord, the secret of our hearts." 

The Dean of Windsor read "I heard a voice," and the choir sang the 
Lord's Prayer to the music composed especially for the dead Queen by 
Gounod. Once more the strains of the choir welled up through the ancient 
chapel with the singing of "How Blessed Are They That Die," by 
Tschaikowsky. 

The Archbishop of Canterbury read the Collect, and with quavering 
voice pronounced the benediction. There was a solemn pause while all 
heads bowed. A few sobs were heard and the choir then broke the oppres- 
sive stillness with the sweet harmony of the "Dresden Amen." 

Then the loud tones of Norroy, King-at-Arms, William Henry Weldon, 
proclaimed the dead monarch's title. The Sphor anthem, "Blessed Are the 
Departed," followed, and the service was concluded by the playing of Bee- 
thoven's funeral march. 

After the burial service was finished the Herald King-at-Arms pro- 
claimed King Edward, who was standing beside his mother's cofhn, at the 
foot of the altar steps, "Edward VH., King of Great Britain and Ireland, 
Defender of the Faith, Emperor of India, and Sovereign of the most noble 
Order of the Garter." 

The Herald's last words were, "God save the King." 

The Queen's body lay until Monday in the Albert Memorial Chapel. 



SHE SLEEPS BY THE SIDE OF HER HUSBAND. 239 

SHE SLEEPS BY THE SIDE OF HER HUSBAND. 

With a benediction of tears and military honors, Queen Victoria was 
laid to rest in the Frogmore mausoleum the afternoon of February 4th. 
Tolling bells, booming cannon, muffled drums and mournful dirges mingled 
with the sobs of her royal children, as her oaken casket was lowered into 
the stone sarcophagus, close beside the body of her mAich-loved consort. 

This last chapter in the story of the empire's grief was the most affecting 
scene attending the royal funeral ceremonies. The fortnight's grief pent 
up in the breasts of her bereaved dear ones, burst the bounds of restraint 
when all that was mortal of the Queen Mother vanished from their sight and 
from earthly vision. 

King Edward, supported by the Kaiser and the Duke of Connaught, 
watched the sad proceedings with visible emotion. Queen Alexandra and 
the Princesses of the royal family gave vent to the most audible grief, their 
tears flowing so copiously that the women all but collapsed from the mental 
agony thus caused. 

The service within the mausoleum was brief and solemn. It opened with 
Sir Arthur Sullivan's "Yea, Though I Walk Through the Valley of the 
Shadow." The anthem was followed by the committal prayer, read by the 
Bishop of Winchester, 

Then the choir sung the hymn "Sleep the Last Sleep." The Dean of 
Windsor read two short burial prayers. Tennyson's "The Face of Death 
Is Toward the Sun of Life" was chanted. The benediction was pronounced, 
and all that was mortal of Victoria the Good was assigned to its last home 
and shelter. 

A brilHant military pageant escorted the Queen's body from the Albert 
Memorial Chapel to Frogmore. It was led by her own company of Grena- 
dier Guards and a file of Highland pipers. At the end marched the ladies 
and gentlemen of Windsor Castle household, her late Majesty's royal 
servants. 

Ponderous artillery horses drew the gun carriage upon which the flag- 
draped cofifin was borne. When the mourning party left the mausoleum 



240 SHE SLEEPS BY THE SIDE OF HER HUSBAND. 

masons took possession of the sarcophagus. Before sundown it was sealed 
and the great marble slab which will be the Queen's tombstone was 
cemented into its place. 

Hundreds of people poured into Windsor throughout the morning and 
by noon the Long Walk was already black with spectators, mostly from 
the surrounding country, waiting for a last glimpse at the coiSn containing 
the remains of Queen Victoria. The sun was shining brightly. 

The final obsequies were as stately as the initial stages. The royal 
mourners followed the coffin on foot to the mausoleum, where the service 
was private. 

The representatives of royal families arrived from London at about one 
o'clock and drove to Windsor Castle. 

The streets of the old town were still hung with wreaths, sadly faded 
since the Saturday previous. The stores were closed during the interment. 

Dismounted Life Guardsmen in their scarlet cloaks, the white plumes of 
their helmets glistening in the sun, kept the route clear from the castle 
slope. Amid the bare boughs of trees below the mist arose from the damp 
earth, trampled into mud by the uneasy thousands. The air was sharp and 
cold. 

From the Albert Memorial Chapel to the mausoleum, nearly a mile from 
the great gate of Windsor Castle, there is a steep slope of five hundred 
yards, at the bottom of which is the lodge gate and a fence. On the castle 
side of this were hundreds of ticket-holders. On the other side, where the 
long walk commences, the public was massed. 

At 3:15 o'clock p. m. the head of the procession passed slowly out of 
King George's arch, in the following order: 

The Queen's company of Grenadier Guards, with arms reversed. 

The governor and constable of Windsor Castle. 

The Duke of Argyll. 

Highlanders and pipers. 

Royal servants. 

Band of the Grenadier Guards. 

The Bishop of Winchester and the Dean of Windsor. 

The Lord Chamberlain and the Lord Steward. 



OBSERVANCES ALL OVER THE WORLD. 241 

The gun carriage, with the coffin, supported by the late Queen's equerries 

and household, flanked by the same officers as appeared 

in Saturday's ceremony in London. 

Following the coffin walked King Edward, the Duke of Connaught, 
Emperor William of Germany, Leopold, King of the Belgians, Prince 
Henry of Prussia and all the other royal personages, including Queen Alex- 
andra and the Princesses, with the exception of the few who had already left 
England. Those present were accompanied by their suites. 

OBSERVANCES ALL OVER THE WORLD. 

Halifax, N. S., February 2, 1901. — All over Canada to-day there were 
demonstrations of mourning for Queen Victoria. At Ottawa, the head- 
quarters of the civil government, services were held attended by the Gov- 
ernor General, the officials, and representatives of the people. 

In every city of any size from Halifax to Vancouver buildings and stores 
were draped in the mourning colors, black and purple and white, and relig- 
ious services were held by all denominations. 

Halifax being the military headquarters in British North America was 
the chief city ot mourning in Canada. In many of the churches services 
were held. The bells were tolled. 

The chief interest centered in the military exercises at the garrison 
chapel, which were attended with great pomp. Colonel Biscoe, command- 
ing the forces in British North America, attended by the officers of the staff, 
paid a tribute to the dead sovereign, and the Episcopalian soldiers of the 
garrison were in attendance. 

At St. Paul's the Lieutenant Governor, representative of the King, 
accompanied by a staff of officers, attended services. 

Solemn high mass was celebrated in the Roman Catholic Cathedral, the 
Roman Catholic soldiers of the garrison being in attendance. 

This evening eighty-one guns were fired at the citadel, the last one just 
at sunset, and in accordance with the wish of the King the fortress flags will 
fiy at half-mast until after Tuesday. 

Ottawa, Ont., February 2, 1901. — Five of the Cabinet Ministers accom- 



242 OBSERVANCES ALL OVER THE WORLD. 

panied the Governor General to the memorial ceremonial for the Queen at 
the Anglican Cathedral to-day. They were Sir Richard Cartwright, Dr. 
Borden, Mr. Fisher, Mr. Mulock, and Mr. Tarte. The latter represented 
the Roman Catholic element in the government. The Governor General 
and the viceregal staff, Major General O'Grady Haly, general officer com- 
manding the Canadian militia, and the garrison brigade staff were all in full 
uniform, with mourning badges. The cathedral was draped in black and 
purple, and the procession included the entire Anglican clergy of the capital, 
with the high dignitaries of state and the Justices of the Supreme and 
Exchequer Courts in their scarlet robes. Lady Minto and her children were 
in the deepest court mourning. Memorial services were also held at the 
Roman Catholic Cathedral and the churches of other denominations. 

Montreal, February 2, 1901. — In all the churches solemn requiem serv- 
ices were held. All business was suspended. A remarkable scene occurred 
in front of the Montreal Star office, where pictures of the late Queen were 
distributed. Thousands besieged the office, and closed up St. James' street 
for traffic, and many were hurt in the crush. 

Vancouver, B. C, February 2, 1901. — All business in this city was sus- 
pended from noon to-day until night, and memorial services were held in 
the AngHcan churches at various hours from early morning to evening. In 
the afternoon the opera house was crowded at a non-denominational service 
in memory of the Queen, every Protestant clergyman in the city having 
some part. 

Kingston, Jamaica, February 2, 1901. — A state service was held here 
simultaneously with the Queen's funeral in England. Thousands attended, 
including the Governor and high officials. The whole island is in mourning. 

Bridgeton, Island of Barbadoes, February 2, 1901. — Simultaneous 
memorial services were held to-day throughout the West Indies. The 
officers and the band from the United States warships Monongahela and 
Hartford took part. 

Cape Town, February 2, 1901. — The city was draped to-day with mourn- 
ing, and from early morning strearns of people placed wreaths at the foot 
of the Queen's statue in Parliament House garden. Wreaths from every 




<; 

o 
I— I 

I— I 
2; 



O 
O 

o 



Q 

W 
M 
H 



OBSERVANCES ALL OVER THE WORLD. v 245 

part of South Africa were deposited about the statue, notably from insurgent 
districts. 

Adelaide, South Australia, February 2, 1901. — Dispatches here show 
that business was entirely suspended throughout the colony to-day. Train 
traffic ceased for ten minutes. 

Cairo, February 2, 1901. — The services at All Saints' Church here to-day 
was attended by the Khedival Princes, court officials, and diplomatic corps, 
the consular corps, the Ministers, General Talbot and staff, the British and 
Egyptian officers, and the Greek, Coptic, and other clergy. 

Bombay, February 2, 1901. The mourning here was universal. The 
stores and banks were closed, and trains and street railways worked on 
Sunday schedules. Native soldiers, with arms reversed, watched the 
Queen's statue all night long, and at dawn, natives flocked thither to deposit 
wreaths. Services were held in all the churches and temples. 

Shanghai, February 2, 1901. — Two services were held in the cathedral 
here to-day. The first was attended by the British and foreign military and 
naval officers and at the second the civilians and all the Consuls were 
present. 

Hongkong, February 2, 1901, — Services were held to-day at the cathe- 
dral, the Governor and Council, the government officials, and the British 
and foreign naval and military officers attending. A special Chinese service 
was held in the afternoon. 

Peking, February 2, 1901. — An imposing international military memor- 
ial ceremony in honor of Queen Victoria took place here to-day. A majority 
of the foreigners in Peking and all the members of the dififerent legations 
were present. The massed bands of various troops rendered suitable music, 
and one hundred and one minute guns were fired. 

Washington, D. C, February 2, 1901. — In the presence of a distin- 
guished assemblage, including the President of the United States and his 
entire Cabinet, the Chief Justice and the members of the United States 
Supreme Court, members of Congress, the French, Russian, German, 
Italian and Mexican Ambassadors to the United States, all the foreign Min- 
isters, Lieutenant-General Miles, commanding the Army of the United 



246 OBSERVANCES ALL OVER THE WORLD. 

States, Admiral Dewey of the United States Navy, and other distinguished 
persons, impressive tribute to-day was rendered to England's dead Queen. 

The ceremony was held at St. John's Episcopal Church, beginning at 
eleven o'clock this morning, and was distinctly official in character. The 
British Ambassador, Lord Pauncefote, had been directed by the London 
Foreign office to bestow this last mark of respect to the dead sovereign, and 
the time was chosen so as to correspond exactly with the solemn pageant in 
London as the mother of rulers was borne to Windsor. 

The quaint old church where the services were held was taxed to its 
utmost capacity with a great crowd. 

Paris, February 2, 1901. — To-day has been practically observed as a day 
of mourning, and official and private festivities and entertainments have 
been postponed. Among those present at the memorial service for Queen 
Victoria, which took place this morning in the English church in the Rue 
D'Aguesseau, were Mme. Loubet, M. Fallieres, President of the Senate; 
Paul Deschanel, President of the Chamber of Deputies; M. Delcasse, Min- 
ister of Foreign Affairs; all the Ambassadors now in Paris, attended by their 
secretaries of embassy, and the civil, military, and naval attaches; PhiHppe 
Crozier, Chief of the Protocole; Cabinet Ministers, Jules Claretie of the 
Theatre Fran9ais, delegations from the French Academy of Commerce, 
many Senators and Deputies, Benjamin Constant, Bouguereau, and Bonnat, 
the artists, and, in fact, nearly all who are prominent in public life, art, or 
literature. 

The commemorative service this afternoon in the American church in 
the Avenue Alma was attended by nearly all representative Americans in 
Paris. 

Berlin, February 2, 1901. — Princes August Wilhelm and Oscar, Princess 
Henry of Prussia, Prince and Princess Frederick Leopold and their sons, 
and Prince Albrecht, all HohenzoUerns, were present at the funeral services 
in memory of the dead Queen held in the English Church here to-day. The 
service at Homburg was attended by the Empress of Germany, the heredi- 
tary Princess of Saxe-Meiningen, the Crown Princess of Greece, and Prin- 
cess Frederick of Hesse. At Munich the Prince Regent of Bavaria and 



SERVICES OVER THE UNITED KINGDOM. 247 

other Princes and Princesses attended a service. At Kiel eighty-one guns 
were fired by the warships. 

St. Petersburg, February 2, 1901. — Memorial services were held in the 
English Church this morning. The British Ambassador, Sir Charles Scott, 
received the Czar, Czarina, and Dowager Czarina in the corridor, and 
present were all the Grand Dukes and Grand Duchesses, all the leading 
members of the aristocracy, and the diplomatic corps, including the United 
States Ambassador, Mr. Charlemagne Tower, who was accompanied by 
Mrs. Tower, The Czar wore the insignia of the Order of the Garter. 

Lisbon, February 2, 1901. — Portugal observed the day as one of national 
mourning. Everywhere flags were draped. The forts and naval vessels 
have fired guns every quarter of an hour. The theaters are closed. 

Rome, February 2, 1901. — At the EngHsh Church of All Saints' services 
to-day the Marquis Visconti-Venosta, the Minister of Foreign Afifairs, repre- 
sented the King and ministry. A delegation from the Senate and Chamber 
01 Deputies and the diplomatic corps were present with the English colony, 

Copenhagen, February 2, 1901. — King Christian IX., with all the other 
members of the royal family, the members of the Cabinet, and diplomatists, 
attended the services held to-day in memory of the Queen. 

The Hague, February 2, 1901. — Representatives of the Queen and 
Queen Mother, the diplomatic corps, and the members of the British colony 
attended a service of the English Church to-day. 

SERVICES OVER THE UNITED KINGDOM. 

London, February 2, 1901. — In every town and village throughout the 
three kingdoms business was stopped, shades were drawn down, the public 
buildings were draped, and there were services for the dead in the cathedrals 
and in all the Anglican and in many of the non-conformist churches. 

Some half a hundred individuals and societies at Birmingham, in a snow- 
storm, piled up wreaths of flowers at the foot of Queen Victoria's statue. 

At Manchester the civic body and leading men marched in procession 
through the principal thoroughfares to the cathedral services. The non- 



248 ONLY ACTS AT CORONATIONS. 

conformist bodies at the same time held a great memorial meeting in Free 
Trade Hall, while others attended overflow meetings. 

In Dublin the Lord Mayor and thirteen of the corporation, robed, with 
the Judges and other notable persons, went to St. Patrick's Cathedral. This 
building and most of the Protestant churches were draped with purple 
edged with gold. 

At Leeds the street railway men held a midnight meeting and deter- 
mined not to work to-day, as they had been requested to do. 

An imposing service was held at Edinburgh, in St. Giles' Cathedral. 

The late Queen's retainers at Balmoral and the people of the country- 
side generally toiled through the snowbound roads to a service held at 
Crathie Parish Church, which was attended by the Queen when staying at 

Balmoral. 

ONLY ACTS AT CORONATIONS. 

London, February 9, 1901. — There is one servant of the Crown, who, 
although borne on the roster of the royal household, is never called upon 
to fulfill the duties of his ofBce, save at the coronation of the sovereign. 

The official in question is the monarch's champion, who, while the 
coronation banquet is in progress in Westminster Hall, rides in on horseback 
clad from head to foot in steel armor, with visor closed. 

Raising the visor he challenges all comers to deny the title of the sover- 
eign, and offers if necessary to fight them with lance, sword, and mace on 
the spot, throwing his steel gauntlet on to the floor. It is needless to say 
that no one is ever found who desires to pick up the gauntlet, or to accept 
the challenge. 

A golden goblet full of wine is then handed to him, which he drains to 
the health of the monarch, after which he backs his charger from the royal 
presence, carrying with him the magnificent chased golden goblet, which he 
retains as his perquisite. 

The office is an ancient one and was first instituted by William the Con- 
queror, who intrusted it to Robert de Marmion, conferring upon him at the 
same time the Manor of Scrivelsby, decreeing that the office should always 
pertain to the owner of Scrivelsby. 



CHAPTER Xll. 

Victorian Chronology From 1837 to 1901 — Occurrences of That Period, in 
Some of Which the Queen Was the Principal Figure — Mighty Changes 
Wrought Within Three-Score Years — A Concise Summing Up of Happen- 
ings. 

THE chronology of the life of Queen Victoria is more interesting, per- 
haps, than that of any sovereign who ever lived, this being by reason 
of the fact that her reign covered the most progressive and enterpris- 
ing period in the existence of this mundane sphere. 

The following is a concise and accurate synopsis of what the Queen saw 

and experienced from 1837 to 1901: 

1819 — Future Queen born May 24th, 

1837 — Accession to throne June 20th, 

1838 — Coronation, Westminster Abbey, June 28th. Trans-Atlantic steam 
navigation inaugurated. 

1839 — Madman arrested trying to enter Buckingham Palace. Anti-Corn 
Law League formed. British forces occupy Cabul. British took pos- 
session of Aden. 

1840 — Queen married to Prince Albert February loth. Insane potboy tries 
to shoot King and Queen June loth. Cheap postage introduced in 
England. Princess Royal born, later Empress Frederick, November 
2 1 St. British and Austrian expedition to Syria. Mehemet Ali sues for 
peace. 

1841 — Sir Robert Peel succeeds Lord Melbourne as Premier. Prince of 
Wales born November 9. Successful insurrection in Cabul. British 
take Canton and Amoy. 

1842 — John Francis tried to shoot Queen May 30th. John William Bean 
pointed pistol at Queen July 3rd. British withdrew from Afghanistan. 
Hongkong ceded to England. Chinese ports opened. British took 
Boer Republic in Natal. 

249 



250 THE VICTORIAN CHRONOLOGY. 

1843 — Princess Alice Maud Mary born April 25th. Scinde annexed to Brit- 
ish India. Queen and Prince Albert visit King and Queen of France. 
Prince Alfred born August 6th. Louis Philippe visits Queen. 

J842 — Seals of colonial office given to Mr. Gladstone. England and France 
made war on Dictator of Argentine Republic. Outbreak first Sikh war. 

1846 — Princess Helena born May 25th. Anglo-American treaty settling 
northwest boundary of United States. Great famine in Ireland. Corn 
laws repealed. Sikhs defeated, ceded territory to East India Company. 

1847 — Queen headed Irish famine subscription. 

1848 — Princess Louise born March 18. Queen and Prince Albert visit 
fugitive French royal family at Claremont. Great chartist demonstra- 
tion London. Insurrection in Ireland attempted. Outbreak second 
Sikh war. Orange River sovereignty occupied. Boers establish Trans- 
vaal Republic. 

1849 — Hamilton fired at Queen. Queen first visited Ireland. Sikhs 
defeated. Punjaub annexed to British India. 

1850 — Prince Arthur born May i. Robert Pate attacked Queen with stick. 
Clayton-Bulwer treaty concluded. Taiping rebellion, China. 

185 1 — Queen opened great exposition. Burmah provoked British hostili- 
ties. Gold found in Australia. 

1852 First Derby ministry succeeded Russell and ministration. Aberdeen 

succeeded Derby. London protocol on succession in Denmark and 
Schleswig-Holstein. British victories in Burmah. Pegu acquired. 

1853 — Prince Leopold born April 7. Royal family visited Ireland. 

1854 — Crimean war formally begun by declaration of England and France 
against Russia. British-Japanese treaty. British permitted Orange 
River Republic. Commander McClure accomplished northwest pas- 
sage. 

1855 — French Emperor and Empress visited Queen at Windsor and visit 
returned in Paris. Palmerston succeeded Aberdeen as Premier. Liv- 
ingstone discovered Victoria Falls. 

1856 Treaty of Paris ended Crimean war. Oude annexed to British India. 

Outbreak second war, England against China. Persians occupied 



THE VICTORIAN CHRONOLOGY. 251 

Herat, involved in war with government of India, successfully ended by 
British next year. 

1857 — Outbreak of Indian mutiny. Canton occupied by British and French. 
Princess Beatrice born April 14th. 

1858 — Second Derby ministry succeeded Palmerston. Hebrew disability in 
Britain removed. Indian mutiny virtually suppressed and government 
transferred from East India Company to Crown. Treaty with China. 
Queen congratulated American President over new Trans- Atlantic cable 
August 22nd. 

1859 — Queen's first grandchild, now Emperor William II., born January 
27th. Palmerston succeeded Derby as Premier, June. Difificulties 
with China. 

i860 — Invitation of President Buchanan for Prince of Wales to visit Amer- 
ica accepted by Queen. Anglo-French expedition occupied Peking. 

1861 — Duchess of Kent, Queen's mother, died. Queen's third visit to Ire- 
land. Prince Consort died December 14th. England, France and Spain 
sent fleets to Mexico. 

1862 — United States granted British demand for release of Mason and 
Slidell. 

1863 — Prince of Wales married March loth, France declared war on Mex- 
ico; England and Spain withdrew forces. Britain renounced renuncia- 
tion of protectorate over Ionian Islands. 

1864 — Baker discovered Lake Albert Nyanza. 

1865 — Measures taken to suppress Fenians in Ireland. Palmerston died. 
Russell Premier for second time. 

1866 — Queen thanked George Peabody, American philanthropist, for gifts 
of $1,750,000 to London poor. Fenians attempted invasion of Canada. 
Russell resigned. Third Derby ministry. Successful establishment of 
telegraphy between Europe and America. 

1867 — Fenian insurrection in Ireland. Dominion of Canada constituteo. 
Reform Act passed. Outbreak of Abyssinian war, ended next year. 

1868 — Disraeli succeeded Derby as Premier. Reform Act for Scotland and 
Ireland. Gladstone succeeded Disraeli. 



252 THE VICTORIAN CHRONOLOGY. 

1869 — Irish church disestabHshed, to take effect 1871. Pacific Railway 
and Suez Canal completed. 

1870 — Empress Eugenie visited Queen. Irish Land Act, Elementary Edu- 
cational Act for England and Wales. Baker led expedition up the Nile. 

1871 — Former Emperor Louis Napoleon visited Queen. Treaty of Wash- 
ington to settle the Alabama question. Stanley found Livingstone. 
Grave condition of Queen's health announced and Prince of Wales had 
typhoid fever. 

1872 — Queen present at thanksgiving for Prince of Wales' recovery. Amer- 
ica obtains the Alabama award. Ballot Bill passed. 

1874 — Disraeli succeeded Gladstone as Premier. Britain annexed Fiji 
Islands. Ashantee war ended. 

1875 — Britain bought Sultan's share in Suez Canal. 

1876 — Constantinople conference opened; closed next year. 

1877 — Queen received General Grant. British took Transvaal Republic. 

1878 — Britain occupied Cypress. Treaty of Berlin. War against Afghanis- 
tan, 

1879 — War against Zulus. Queen's first great-great-grandchild born, Prin- 
cess Charlotte of Saxe-Meiningen, May 12. Gladstone succeeded Bea- 
consfield as Premier. Active agrarian movement in Ireland. Roberts 
entered Kandahar. Transvaal uprising. 

1881 — Queen telegraphed sympathy on President Garfield's death and court 
went into mourning. British defeated by Boers at Majuba Hill, auton- 
omy granted. Irish Land Bill passed, Parnell imprisoned. Land 
League manifesto, British evacuated Kandahar, Mahdi revolt in 
Soudan, 

1882 — Roderic Maclean shot at Queen, Europeans massacred in Alexan- 
dria. War against Arabi Pasha, who was defeated. Parnell released. 
Lord Cavendish murdered in Dublin. Irish National League formed. 

1883 — Queen injured by slipping on stairs. 

1884 — Gordon shut up in Khartoum. Franchise Bill passed. 

1885 — Irish dynamite outrages in London. Mahdi captured Khartoum. Gor- 
don killed, British force withdrawn from Soudan, Death of Mahdi, 



THE VICTORIAN CHRONOLOGY. 253 

British prepare to meet Russian advance on Herat; settlement effected. 
Riel rebellion in Canada. Salisbury succeeded Gladstone as Premier. 
Conquest of Burmah. Canadian Pacific Railway completed, 

1886— Queen opened Colonial and Indian Exhibition. Burmah annexed. 
Gladstone succeeded Salisbury, proposed home rule and was succeeded 
by SaHsbury. 

1887 — Queen's jubilee celebrated. Queen sent Duke of Norfolk to congrat- 
ulate the Pope on his ecclesiastical jubilee. 

1888 — Queen present at celebration of Prince of Wales' silver wedding. 
Fisheries treaty with United States rejected by Senate. Osman Digna 
defeated near Suakim. 

1889 — British collision with Portugal in Southeast Africa. Samoan con- 
ference with United States and Germany. 

1890 — Portugal yielded to British demands. Treaty with Germany defining 
spheres in Africa and ceding Heligoland to Germany. Protectorate of 
Zanzibar assumed. 

1891 — Queen reviewed French fleet. Osman Digna completely defeated. 

1892 — Duke of Clarence died. Agreement with United States to arbitrate 
Bering Sea seal fisheries dispute. Gladstone succeeded Salisbury as 
Premier. 

1893 — Queen opened Imperial Institute. Home Rule Bill introduced. 
Bering Sea arbitration award against America. British East Africa 
Company defeated King of Matabeleland. 

1894 — Queen formally inaugurated Manchester ship canal. Prince Edward 
of York born, June 23rd. Rosebery succeeded Gladstone as Premier. 

1895 — Salisbury succeeded Rosebery. President Cleveland sent message 
to Britain regarding Venezuelan boundary dispute. 

1896 — Queen received Li Hung Chang. Queen on September 23rd had 
reigned longer than any former British sovereign. Britain granted 
American demand for Venezuelan arbitration. Jamestown raid. 
Ashantees compelled to accept British sovereignty. Kitchener occu- 
pied Dongola. 

1897 — Queen's "diamond jubilee" celebrated. Senate rejected Anglo- 



254 EXPANSION OF THE EMPIRE 

American general arbitration treaty. Autonomy of Crete declared by 
powers. Grand Duchess Tatiana of Russia, Queen's thirtieth great- 
grandchild, born. Revolt of Indian hill tribes on Afghan frontier. 

1898 — Two-cent postage went into effect between Britain and colonies. 

1899 — Dervish force surrendered. Venezuelan arbitration award a compro- 
mise. Transvaal declared war October 11; colonies rallied to support 
Britain. Agreement with America and Germany for partition of Samoa. 

1900 — Queen welcomed in Ireland, International expeditions occupied 
Peking. Punitive expedition against Ashantees. Australian colonies 
formed Commonwealth of Australia. 

1901 — Queen Victoria died at Osborne House, 6:30 p. m., January 22nd. 

EXPANSION OF THE EMPIRE. 

The contracted boundaries of the British Islands long since proved too 
narrow to contain a people of such expanding enterprise, and they have gone 
forth, "conquering and to conquer," settling and developing, until, at the 
beginning of the Twentieth Century, the Empire of Great Britain and its col- 
onies covered an area of 11,336,806 square miles, inhabited by 381,037,374 
human beings. 

This area is nearly one-fourth that of the habitable land surface of the 
earth, and its population quite one-fourth of all mankind. The East Indian 
possessions of this great empire are larger than all Europe without Russia, 
and the North American ones, if their water surface be included, are larger 
than the whole of Europe. 

Here is a table showing the territorial acquisitions of the empire during 
the reign of the late Queen: 

1839 — Aden annexed. 
1842 — Hongkong acquired. 
1842 — Natal taken. 
1843 — Sindee annexed. 
1846 — Sikh territory ceded. 
1849 — Punjaub annexed. 



EXPANSION OF THE EMPIRE. 255 

1852 — Pegu, Burmah, acquired. 

1856 — Oude annexed, 

1858 — Crown assumed rule of India. 

1874 — Fiji Islands annexed. 

1875 — Sultan's share in Suez Canal bought. 

1878 — Island of Cyprus occupied. 

1886 — Burmah annexed. 

1890 — Zanzibar protectorate assumed. 

1896 — Ashantee annexed. 

1896 — Kitchener occupied Dongola. 

1899 — Partition of Samoa. 

1900 — Transvaal and Orange Free State annexed. 

No mention is made in the above of the "sphere of influence," over which 
Great Britain exercises practical control, in the Chinese Empire. 

It comprises, to all intents and purposes, the mighty Valley of the 
Yang-tse, in the very center of the Celestial Kingdom, and includes the 
richest section of the realm. 

England, with the United States, Russia, Germany, Japan, and France, 
was forced to send troops to China in 1900 because of the "Boxer" out- 
break, which resulted in the assassination of the German Minister and many 
thousand Christians. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

The "Victorian Era" Representative of the Fullness of the Nineteenth Century — 
A Period of Magnificent Achievement and Progress in Trade, Commerce, 
Science, Art and Invention Such as the World Had Never Known Before 
in Its Existence. 

ALL the world of the period embraced by the reign of the late Queen 
and Empress has accepted the term "Victorian era" as representative 
of the fullness of the nineteenth century. Thirty-six years of the 
century had gone when the young Queen took the throne, but they were 
years that had meant little of the fulfillment of time allotted to her rule. 

She outlived every sovereign who sat upon a throne in the year of her 
coronation. No member of the Privy Council of 1837 is living. Two Em- 
perors of Germany have played their parts and gone the way of all flesh. 

Wars have altered the map of the world. States have risen up, lived 
their brief lives, and gone down, carrying governments and rulers with 
them. But through it all the British government has stood intact, save as 
it has been developed into an empire upon which the sun never sets. Victoria 
was crowned a Queen and became an Empress. 

During her reign there have been eleven Lord Chancellors, ten Prime 
Ministers, five Archbishops of Canterbury and six of York. In the United 
States there have been seventeen Presidents; in Canada ten Viceroys; in 
France one King, one Emperor, and six Presidents; on the throne of Prus- 
sia five Kings, and in Russia three Emperors. 

Her government exercised a potential part in every rearrangement of 
the map of Europe. Since her accession the area of the British Empire has 
been doubled. Unlike her grandfather, George IIL, she never surrendered 
any territory once officially made British soil. 

It might be disputed that her rule had accomplished this, but she often 
displayed a temper that showed she was neither a figurehead nor an ally 
of a thing which did not meet her approval. 

256 



THE ''VICTORIAN ERA." 257 

Every sovereign up to her time used, or tried to use, the royal preroga- 
tive. During Victoria's reign this was used once by Gladstone and once 
by Disraeli, but never by the Queen herself. It is not an extravagant state- 
ment to say that had Queen Victoria attempted to make use of the long- 
neglected power of veto in the British Crown, loved and honored sovereign 
though she was, she would have brought about a revolution that would 
have shaken the foundations of Europe. The greatest writer on the English 
constitution has said that had the death warrant of the Queen of Great 
Britain been laid before her by her Ministers she would have had no choice 
but to sign it. 

Queen Victoria not only never claimed political power but she dis- 
claimed it. 

As the British constitution is now understood, it rules out all political 
influence on the part of the King or Queen, and it has been held scarcely 
even possible that constitutional government and the relegation of all real 
power to the representatives of the people could have achieved their great 
triumphs in the mighty British Empire under any sovereign but a woman — 
and a woman of a pliable, domestic nature at that. 

A rebellious outbreak in Canada confronted the home government at 
the time of her ascension of the throne in 1837. The ministry existed on 
suffrance, having no power to use and carry out measures. In 1839 the 
Ministers were defeated on a Jamaican question and resigned, but an objec- 
tion of the Queen to Sir Robert Peel's acceptance of the Premiership kept 
the Ministers at their posts. The same year chronicled the introduction 
of the penny postage. 

An attempt in Egypt to revolt against the government of the Porte was 
crushed by the Ministry, but it was not able to pass measures of importance 
and went to defeat in the attempt to repeal the corn laws. 

With the coming of the Conservatives into office a new era was antici- 
pated. War in prospect abroad and the existence of distress at home made 
change inviting. 

Peel, at the outset, was compelled to provide for a revenue deficit of 
£2,500,000 and also to take some steps for free trade in grain. Bread was 



258 THE "VICTORIAN ERA." 

at a high figure, that the farmers of England might derive a supposed profit, 
v;hile a duty kept grain out of the country that might have been imported 
from the Baltic and the Black Sea territories. Peel proposed an alteration 
in the corn laws, with the object to keep the price of wheat as nearly as 
possible at sixty shillings, and the measure was carried. 

War in China made this deficiency in revenue even worse, while the 
prospects of war on the Indian frontier made further complications. Peel 
grasped the whole subject in comprehensive way and began a series of finan- 
cial reforms. An income tax was evolved in spite of violent opposition. 
Tariff schedules were revised and simplified in preparation for the coming 
free trade. 

In 1 84 1 Afghanistan was punished for the murder of the British Envoy, 
but England did not care to retain the country, which at that time would 
have proved useless and costly. 

Free trade and the discussion of its possible results took up the next 
three years of attention. Factory labor, education, church rates, the visit 
of the Queen to the French King, and the excitement at Oxford caused 
by defections of prominent high churchmen to the Catholic faith were sub- 
jects lending to the general agitations of the time. The financial reforms 
in the meantime had changed the deficit to a surplus of £1,500,000. 

Emancipation of the Catholics had not served to quiet Ireland. The 
movement for repeal of the union was active. O'Connell made some 
speeches and was tried by a Protestant jury on a charge of sedition. He 
was sentenced to imprisonment and fine, but after a tempestuous scene in 
the House of Lords the great agitator was released. The next year, as an 
act of justice, the government indorsed the Catholic College of Maynooth. 

Peel, assisted by Gladstone, went on with his financial reforms. As a 
measure toward free trade he proposed using the surplus from the income 
tax in reducing taxes on commodities. A great change was proposed in 
the sugar duties. Disraeli, however, representing the landed interests, which 
were held to be taxed too heavily already, combated Peel's meas- 
ures. 

The session of 1845 closed quietly. Jews were admitted to municipal 



THE "VICTORIAN ERA." 259 

offices. The Oregon dispute with the United States was arranged and New 
Zealand pacified. 

On top of these, however, came the potato famine in Ireland. Pressure 
was brought for the admission of corn duty free. Peel was convinced, but 
his Cabinet would not follow him; Lord Stanley resigned and the Ministry 
went to pieces. 

Manchester was a hotbed of agitation against the corn laws, and the 
Anti-Corn Law league was strong in men, money and enthusiasm. A free 
trade hall was built in Manchester. In February, 1846, a fixed duty was 
put upon corn for three years, after which it was to be abolished. Free 
traders, in opposing the delay, were beaten, and the bill passed by a large 
majority. 

In a bill for the suppression of crime in Ireland, however, the protection- 
ists had their revenge, unseating the Ministry. The session of 1847, how- 
ever, did little more than shorten the hours of factory labor. 

Revolution against the government of Louis Philippe in France was 
a danger that began to menace in 1848. All Europe was stirred by it. The 
discontent in Ireland increased, where O'Connell had been superseded by 
Smith and O'Brien. Chartists in England, too, were making trouble for the 
country in their demands for universal suffrage, annual sessions of Parlia- 
ment, vote by ballot, abolition of property qualification for members of 
Parliament, the payment of members, and equal electoral districts. An 
enormous meeting of members was arranged which should show some signs 
of force. A march was proposed in which an enormous petition was to be 
carried to the House of Commons. 

The government prepared to defeat the purpose of the Chartists and 
the Duke of Wellington was put at the head of 170,000 constables for this 
purpose. 

The scheme fell through of its own weight, however, leaving the Chart- 
ists to the ridicule of the country. 

Peace had come upon the country. In 1849 ^^e navigation laws were 
repealed, extending the principles of free trade. Then the great exposition 



260 THE ''VICTORIAN ERA." 

of 185 1 claimed attention and grew to a successful realization under the 
supervision and patronage of Prince Albert. 

A new Ministry and new reforms in finance followed and under Lord 
Aberdeen the income tax was retained. 

In 1854 came the Crimean war, betw^een Russia and Turkey, in which 
England and France supported the cause of the Sultan. Want of supplies 
and of hospitals aroused indignation in England. Discontent became sus- 
picion. An inquiry into the conduct of the Ministry was proposed and the 
Aberdeen Cabinet resigned. Palmerston's Ministry lost the services of 
Gladstone, but it carried on the war with vigor. 

A war breaking out in China caused the Ministry to attempt the disso- 
lution of Parliament rather than resign. The issue was one of confidence 
in Lord Palmerston. Cobden and Bright were rejected as members of the 
peace party and the Liberal cause supported. On the heels of this came the 
Indian mutiny. 

Misunderstandings with the Emperor of France with reference to Eng- 
land as a refuge for political exiles led to Palmerston's downfall. The 
Thames was purified, reforms were instituted in India, and a telegraphic 
cable laid between England and America. 

Disraeli's reform bill, war between France and Austria for the liberation 
of Italy, and other minor domestic differences unseated the DisraeH admin- 
istration. Other reform measures were introduced, free trade was empha- 
sized, and a commercial treaty with France was negotiated. 

Then came war in the United States. In general British sentiment was 
with the South. The Trent affair threatened war to Great Britain for a 
time, but the Union States finally submitted to an ultimatum and returned 
the prisoners, Mason and Slidell. 

Close upon this came the death of the Prince Consort. 

Reforms became the watchword in politics. Gladstone and Bright were 
the expounders. Changes were made in the franchise and in the distribu- 
tions of seats. The disestablishment of the Irish Church was accomplished 
under Gladstone. The Irish Land Act was passed in 1870, putting a re- 




< 

O 
u 

c/5 

en 
Q 

< 
O 

w 



w 

H 

u 

< 

o 

J. 
< 



THE "VICTORIAN ERA." 263 

straint on hasty evictions and providing for some measure of arbitration. A 
comprehensive education act was passed. 

In 1871 purchase into the army was abolished. Universities were thrown 
open to the whole country without regard to religious belief. Trades unions 
were recognized by law. 

In 1873 another measure, designed to remove an Irish grievance, was 
the establishment of a system of Catholic university education, but it satis- 
fied neither party. Changes came in administrations. In 1874 the public 
worship regulation act was introduced by the Archbishop of Canterbury 
to restrain the clergy of the extreme high church from using rituals in imi- 
tation of the Roman Catholic Church against the wishes of parishioners. 

The Prince of Wales visited India in 1875. In the same month the 
government purchased £4,000,000 worth of shares in the Suez Canal. 

For fifteen years after the death of her husband the Queen did not appear 
before Parliament. In 1876 she again appeared at the opening of that body, 
but did not attempt to read her speech as she had done in the earlier years. 

In 1877 the Queen, after a vote in the Parliament, was proclaimed Em- 
press of India by the Governor-General at the durbar in Delhi. This at 
once placed her, in the important matter of titles, on an equality with the 
Emperor of Russia. 

At home the subject of landlordism in Ireland and the Parnell Land 
League made trouble. Home rule became an issue. War in Afghanistan 
and the disastrous retreat to Candalhar were chronicled. Boers in the Trans- 
vaal made trouble, and the memorable Majuba Hill defeat resulted. 

Boycotting in Ireland was dealt with in the coercion act. Gladstone's 
Land Bill was passed in 1881. Arrests under the Coercion Act increased in 
Ireland, and on May 6, 1882, the Burke-Cavendish murders in Phoenix 
Park, Dublin, startled the world. 

In 1885 the suffrage was extended to include 2,000,000 voters not before 
on the registers. 

The year 1888 was full of the Irish question. The British South African 
company was chartered, later to become a powerful factor in Africa. In 



264 TWO GREAT OCCASIONS IN ENGLAND. 

1891 there was a cessation of Irish hostilities, but acute dissensions in the 
ranks of the Home Rule party. 

The Gladstone Ministry dealt with the arrogance of the young Khedive 
of Egypt in 1893. Gladstone introduced his second Home Rule Bill, and it 
was defeated in the House of Lords. In the next year Gladstone retired from 
the leadership of his party, to be succeeded by Lord Rosebery. 

The Venezuelan boundary question afterwards came up but was soon 
settled. The United States and England refused to become agitated over 
a small matter like that. 

The celebration of the Queen's Diamond Jubilee in 1897 was a great 
event in her reign. 

In the almost sixty-four years of Victoria's reign Great Britain won 
the continent of Australia in its entirety, advanced into the heart of Africa 
from its Cape Colony, and expanded the coast settlements in India to a 
complete mastery of the peninsula as far north as the Himalayas and includ- 
ing Burma and Baluchistan. 

Besides the great sweeping annexations were countless acquisitions of 
ports here and there and scores of islands. The only reverse of any conse- 
quence suffered by the British march of empire was the loss of the north- 
west comer of the United States when, in 1846, England agreed to move 
the southern boundary of British America at that point north to the forty- 
ninth parallel. 

England, however, seeing the justice of the contention, and well know- 
ing that even if she lost the territory it had fallen into the hands of a 
friendly nation, agreed to the readjustment of the boundary line with very 
good grace. 

TWO GREAT OCCASIONS IN ENGLAND. 

In England's history there will live records of two occasions when 
Englishmen throughout the world chorused reverence for Her Majesty, 
Queen Victoria — the Golden Jubilee of 1887, marking the close of the 
fiftieth year of her reign, and the Diamond Jubilee of 1897, when the six- 
tieth year of her rule came to its end. In these great choruses of thanks- 



TIVO GREAT OCCASIONS IN ENGLAND. 265 

giving which echoed around the earth every nation of the civilized world 
added its voice. On each of these occasions sermons were preached and 
te deums were sung everywhere. From St. Paul's Cathedral to the hum- 
blest village chapel English hearts pledged themselves to their Queen. 

In the year 1897 the most memorable and most important procession 
that London had ever known moved through its streets. This great col- 
umn of marching men, reviewed by more than 5,000,000 people, marked 
the climax of the Diamond Jubilee. For two days services had been held 
in churches and cathedrals throughout the United Kingdom. In many 
instances continuous services were held throughout the day and special 
anthems were sung. Seven miles from Constantinople, in the chapel of the 
British embassy at Thorapia, five envoys from the Sultan of Turkey repre- 
sented this ruler at the services, in which Englishmen in the Ottoman Em- 
pire participated. In Paris President Faure attended special services; in 
the English church at Athens King George of Greece was one of the wor- 
shipers; Bishop Potter of New York preached in London at the Windsor 
Parish Church; services were said throughout the Continent and in the 
United States — every civilized nation of the globe added its voice in the 
praise of Victoria, Queen. 

The celebration of the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria began on 
June 20, 1897, with the holding of thanksgiving services throughout the 
Kingdom. A private service was held at St. George's Chapel, Windsor Cas- 
tle, which was attended by the Queen, the members of the royal family, and 
a few intimate friends. The diplomats, special jubilee envoys, and Judges, 
in their robes of state, attended the special services held in St. Paul's Cathe- 
dral. Ambassadors from all the greater nations of the globe were present, 
as also were the Prince and Princess of Wales, the Duke and Duchess of 
York, and other members of the Royal family. It was the strangest Sunday 
London had known. 

The climax of the Diamond Jubilee came on June 22d. Hundreds of 
thousands of people had had no sleep during the night, and at daybreak the 
streets were crowded. Color was everywhere. Four millions of visitors 
were said to have been added to London's 5,000,000. The Queen arrived 



266 TWO GREAT OCCASIONS IN ENGLAND. 

at noon to find the streets throbbing with the heavy tramp of millions, and 
a bedlam of street songs, horns, trumpets, and cheering. Stands along the 
whole route were covered with cloths, swathed in flags, flowers, evergreen, 
or bunting. 

Probably 5,000,000 people saw the great pageant, celebrating the climax 
fc>f the Jubilee. In all history no such vast mass of humanity has gathered 
to witness a similar spectacle. Fabulous sums were paid for seats in win- 
dows and stands along the line of march. The mighty roar from millions 
of throats never ceased from the moment the Queen left the palace until she 
was helped from her carriage at the end of a trying ordeal three hours later. 

At the head of the parade came the colonial troops and the Premier. 
Representatives of the Indian army came next. There were giant Sikhs, 
wearing tremendous white turbans. There were cheers from the marchers 
from the Canadian mounted forces to the New South Wales cavalry, from 
the Dyaks of Borneo to the strapping cavalrymen from Jamaica. The pro- 
cession took forty-five minutes to pass a given point at a quick walk. 

Riding ahead of the Queen's carriage was a cavalcade of Princes, includ- 
ing relatives or representatives of every notable sovereign in the world. 
Prince Ferdinand of Bulgaria was there; the Crown Prince of Austria, in a 
brilliant Hussar uniform; German Princes and Grand Dukes, three of them, 
in the white uniforms of the Emperor, were there; Japanese, Burmese, and 
Siamese Princes, swarthy little fellows, going on their way with Oriental 
impassiveness, were in the Hne. 

Then came the Queen's carriage, drawn by eight cream-colored horses, 
with their red morocco harness studded all over with burnished gold me- 
dallions bearing the Royal Arms, each led by a running groom dressed in 
a postilion's peaked cap and long coat, covered with gold braid. The 
Queen sat alone in the rear seat, opposite her being the Princess of Wales 
and the Princess Christian. 

When the Queen reached Temple Bar, the limits of the city proper, 
she was met by the Lord Mayor, who had come from the Mansion House to 
meet her and to hand her the aword of the City of London. The Lord 
Mayor, clad in a crimson velvet robe, with a deep tippet ermine, descended 



TIVO GREAT OCCASIONS IN ENGLAND. 207 

from his horse and with a low obeisance proffered Her Majesty the famous 
pearl-handled sword, which is one of the city's greatest treasures. The 
Queen just touched the handle of the weapon with her fingers and then 
graciously signified that the Lord Mayor might retain it. The procession 
then moved on to St. Paul's Cathedral. Here brief services were held, and 
the Queen was then escorted to the Mansion House. 

When night fell the festival became the people's own. Confetti was 
thrown for the first time in London's history. Every street was arched with 
glowing fines of electric fights. At midnight millions of people were mov- 
ing through the thoroughfare singing "God Save the Queen." On the 
following night a gala performance of opera was given. The Queen 
bestowed titles on numerous of her subjects. On June 24th the Princess of 
Wales gave a jubilee feast to the poor of London. It was rumored at this 
tim.e that the Queen would abdicate in favor of the Prince of Wales. As 
usual the rumor proved to be false. 

The services celebrating the Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria's reign 
in 1887 were similar to those which followed a decade later when her Dia- 
mond Jubilee was observed. At that time there were rumors of a plot to 
take the Queen's life by the use of dynamite. These stories, however, failed 
to be realized. The procession disappointed those who had been led to 
believe there would be a great display of troops. It was chiefly interesting 
on account of the prominence of the people taking part. From Bucking- 
ham Palace to Westminster Abbey there were 16,000 troops stationed to 
keep the streets clear. There were three divisions in the procession. In the 
first division there were eleven carriages bearing the Indian visitors, three 
carriages of royal relatives of the Queen, four carriages of royal guests, 
fourteen carriages of visiting royal personages and their attendants, and 
then came eleven state coaches of the Queen's immediate procession. 

The Queen's carriage was preceded by a detachment of Indian troops. 
The Queen sat upon the rear seat of the carriage alone. She wore a black 
satin dress and around her shoulders a white Irish lace shawl with Shamrock 
figures brocaded upon it. Upon her head she wore a small white lace bon- 



268 SOUTH AFRICAN WAR CAUSED SORROW. 

net, with lace work and large diamonds. She carried a small, black sun- 
shade. 

When the Queen entered Westminster Abbey 10,000 people rose to 
their feet. Three tiers of galleries had been built and every seat was filled. 
Special anthems were sung by a choir of 250 voices, the audience frequently 
rising as a unit and lending its 10,000 voices to the accompaniment. It was 
at one of these moments that the Queen appeared in the doorway. After 
special prayers had been said the benediction was pronounced by the Arch- 
bishop of Canterbury. When the benediction had been pronounced the 
Queen's sons knelt before and kissed her hand. They arose and Her 
Majesty kissed each upon his cheek. The Princesses next advanced to the 
Queen and kissed her hand and she kissed them all. 

From the Abbey the Queen returned to the Buckingham Palace, taking 
the route she had traversed after her coronation fifty years before. On the 
following day the children's fete was held in Hyde Park, where the Queen 
greeted 30,000 little ones. During the day many titles and honors were 
conferred. 

SOUTH AFRICAN WAR CAUSED SORROW FOR HER. 

The last days of Victoria were fraught with many trials. When the 
Dutch republics in South Africa took a defiant stand her efforts to hold the 
war party in check came to naught. The English people, following the lead 
of Chamberlain, were wild for war and their beloved sovereign could no 
longer hold them back. In the wild enthusiasm the Anglo-Saxon blood 
boiled with the spirit of Henry V., and despite their Queen the British were 
bound to fight. 

The Queen, who knew her people as well as Elizabeth knew hers, felt 
from the outset that war would follow the long-drawn-out negotiations with 
the Boers, and, through Lord SaHsbury, held the war party in check until 
Kruger forced the hands of the Premier with his ultimatum. Then she gave 
up the struggle. From the first to last she kept in close touch with the 
progress of the war and the routine of years was broken up that she might 
remain at Windsor in order to receive the earliest news from the field. 



SOUTH AFRICAN WAR CAUSED SORROW. 269 

In the prime of her Hfe, with the Prince Consort at her side, she had 
shown her ardor for her soldiers by stripping the shoes from her feet and 
throwing them at the troops departing to the Crimean war in token of the old 
EngHsh custom of conferring good luck. Forty-five years later, in her feeble 
old age, her ardor was not lessened. She spoke feelingly to the guards about 
to leave for South Africa, and it was chronicled that tears filled the eyes of the 
soldiers. 

Victoria traveled from Windsor to Ballater Barracks to say farewell to 
the troops about to start for South Africa a month before the war was formally 
opened. 

"I am pleased to see you looking so well," she said to the Guards, "and so 
fit for duty. You are going on foreign service, and I wish you all a God-speed. 
I hope you will return safe and well." 

At Modder River the men she sent away with such heartfelt sentiment went 
down in rows before the Boers, and the Queen's wish was not to be fulfilled. 
Two months later, when the defeats before Ladysmith and the slaughter of 
British in the march to the relief of Kimberley carried sorrow to every English 
heart, the Queen again stood before departing troops. The flashy uniforms of 
the Guards and the Gordon Highlanders had been discarded for the more 
serviceable khaki uniforms for the real work of war. As the Queen gazed 
upon the closed ranks sweeping by in review, tears came into her eyes. When 
the troops gathered around the stand she occupied she said : 

"I have called you here to-day, my soldiers, who are always near me, to say 
farewell before you cross the seas to a distant part of my Empire to assist your 
comrades, who are fighting so bravely for your sovereign and country. I 
know you will always do your duty as heretofore, and I pray God to bless you 
and give you a safe return." 

Of all the years of the Queen's long reign the time when her troops were 
falling in South Africa seemed to bring more grief. The flower of the English 
army was falling while Buller tried to drive his way to Ladysmith and 
Methuen pounded away on the fronts of the Boer forces. All of the fetal 
days, long established in English royalty, went by unobserved by the Queen 
and the Prince of Wales. The Prince passed his fifty-eighth birthday in 



270 SOUTH AFRICAN WAR CAUSED SORROW. 

seclusion, all the usual festivities of the event being abandoned. Not until 
Christmas came that year did the aged Queen allow holiday cheer to break in 
upon the somber life of the castle. But twice before since the death of the 
Prince Consort had she passed the day at Windsor, but she could not be 
induced to leave Windsor at this critical period, when Buller was crossing and 
recrossing the Tugela, with a long list of the dead to mark each crossing. 

Surrounded by her grandchildren and her great-grandchildren, the Queen 
for a time laid aside the cares that were bearing her down, and Christmas did 
not pass without cheer. In fact, she seemed relieved to have the chatter of 
children, and the attendants were surprised to see the change the day brought 
in her mood. 

But it was already seen that the war was breaking her down. Correspond- 
ents began sending reports that the health of the aged sovereign was giving 
way, and, although they were denied, it was realized in court circles that the 
reports were true. 

During all this time Victoria kept the closest watch on the progress of 
events in the field. A private telephone connected Windsor Castle with the 
War Office, and her private secretary remained there to send to her the latest 
dispatches as soon as received. When Victoria was not suited with the news 
sent her she directed the most searching questions to the War Office, showing 
that her mind had not lost any of its acuteness with advanced age. She had 
not read the newspapers for years, but now directed that a number of London 
dailies should be laid before her every morning in order that she might com- 
pare the reports of the War Office with the work of the correspondents on the 
field. 

As the list of British disasters grew, the selection of Lord Roberts for the 
supreme command in South Africa was decided on, largely through the 
Queen's influence. Before Lord Roberts sailed for Cape Town she wrote him 
a personal letter, sympathizing with him in the death of his son on the field 
of battle, and thanking him for "his great patriotism in pushing aside his 
terrible private grief to devote himself to the affairs of the nation." 

By the Queen's direction the Prince of Wales and other members of the 
royal family were present when Lord Roberts took ship for the scene of war. 



THE QUEEN'S VISIT TO IRELAND. 271 

It was during this period of national humiliation that the German Emperor 
visited his grandmother. Victoria received him at the head of the staircase, 
and seemed to be more cheerful than of recent days. England was in no 
mood to celebrate pageants in honor of foreign sovereigns, and the Emperor's 
visit became a family affair without public celebration. It was announced that 
the Queen was to return the visit to her imperial grandson, but this she was 
never able to do. 

The Queen took great interest in the fitting up of the American hospital 
ship Maine by American women resident in England, and presented the ship 
with her flag. The ceremonies surrounding the formal gift were the occasion 
of an expression of good will towards America. 

England was stirred when, in the period of the deepest South African 
gloom, indelicate cartoons appeared in Parisian papers, in which Victoria was 
the central figure. So deep was the resentment that one Paris editor, who had 
printed an objectionable cartoon, was shot by an English officer. The army 
could get whipped every other day in South Africa, and the nation was ready 
for the next battle, but the British would not stand French insults to their 
Queen. It is said that the French Ministry gave the editors a quiet ''tip" that 
they were playing with fire, and the cartoons ceased. The incident showed in 
a striking way the adoration with which the ordinary Englishman had come to 
regard his Queen. 

THE QUEEN'S VISIT TO IRELAND. 

As the Boer war dragged on the heroism of the Irish troops deeply touched 
the aged Queen, and she determined to visit Ireland. At the same time this 
announcement was made another was issued that stirred Irishmen the world 
over. It was that the wearing of the shamrock on St. Patrick's day was no 
longer prohibited in the British army. This order, it is said, came directly 
from the Queen, in recognition of the bravery of Irish troops in bringing 
victory after so long a list of defeats. 

The visit to Ireland was the first she made since 1861. Throughout her 
reign she made only four visits to the Emerald Isle, the first being in 1840, the 
second in 1853, and the third in 186 1. 



n2 THE QUEEN'S VISIT TO IRELAND. 

Before her departure Victoria was given an expression of love by the 
people of London that outdid the more formal celebration of the Diamond 
Jubilee. As her carriage moved through the streets she bowed to the throngs 
like one greeting friends, and not with the restraint common to royalty. 

When the Queen reached the city's confines, on the embankment opposite 
the temple steps, she was welcomed by the Lord Mayor and Corporation in 
their robes of state. The Lord Mayor presented Her Majesty with the city 
sword of state. With a smile she touched the sword and returned it to the 
Lord Mayor, saying: 

"Thank you for all that my city has done." 

To which the Lord Mayor replied : 

"Your Gracious Majesty's words will forever be treasured in my heart." 

Hundreds of thousands of people surrounded the palace that night and 
shouted and cheered for their ruler. It was a national thanksgiving. Victory 
in the field had come after sore defeat, and in their Queen the national senti- 
ment of the British was crystallized. 

It was early in April, 1900, that Victoria crossed the Irish channel and ap- 
peared at Dublin. The greeting she received was pleasant, if not unduly 
enthusiastic. 

In reply to the address of welcome of the Township Commissioners of 
Queenstown, the Queen handed the following to the chairman : 

'T thank you for your beautiful and loyal address and for the warm wel- 
come wherewith you have greeted me. On setting foot again on Irish soil I 
receive with heartfelt satisfaction your assurances of devotion and affection 
towards me. I am looking forward with much pleasure to my visit to this part 
of my dominions, and I pray, may God bless Ireland with increasing welfare 
and prosperity." 

As this written reply was handed to the chairman Her Majesty said : "I 
am pleased to find myself in Ireland again." 

"One of the noteworthy features of the Queen's entry into Dublin was the 
reproduction of the ancient ceremony in which a pursuivant-at-arms with his 
heralds, gorgeously robed, knocked at the city's gates and asked permission for 
Her Majesty to enter. 



THE QUEEN'S VISIT TO IRELAND. 273 

The fears in England that the Queen would not receive kindly treatment 
in the Irish capital proved unfounded. There was not even a street row to mar 
her visit, which continued through several days. While in Dublin Victoria 
received news from Brussels of the unsuccessful attempt by a half-crazy boy 
to shoot the Prince of Wales. 

All through the active part of the Boer war, before the fall of Pretoria, the 
Queen sent messages of hope to her soldiers. Early in the siege of Ladysmith 
the Queen was sanguine of General White's ability to pull through success- 
fully, and wrote to Lady White assuring her of her undiminished confidence 
in her husband's generalship. 

In October, 1899, when British army losses in South Africa were heavy, 
the Queen sent this message to the Marquis of Lansdowne, the Secretary of 
State for War : 

"My heart bleeds for these dreadful losses again today. It is a great suc- 
cess, but I feel dearly bought. Would you convey my warmest and heartfelt 
sympathy with the near relatives of the fallen and wounded, and my admira- 
tion of the conduct of those they have lost ? V. R. I." 

(Victoria Regina Imperatrix.) 

The Queen telegraphed to General Buller on February 28, 1900, as fol- 
lows: 

"I have heard with the deepest concern the heaviest losses sustained by 
my British-Irish soldiers. I desire to express my sympathy and admiration of 
the splendid qualities they have exhibited throughout these trying operations." 

On April 7th, 1900, Queen Victoria, asked by her granddaughter, the 
Duchess of Fife, to write her opinion of Paul Kruger in the Duchess' album, 
made the following entry : 

"May God guide him and all of us out of our troubles and difficulties." 



CHAPTER XIV. 

Sources of European Royalty — The Late ftueen Victoria's Family Name Said to be 
"Azon," and Not Guelph — Some Curious Things in Genealogy Which Are 
Avowed to be Authentic — Most Earthly Royalties Have Close Kinship 
with Each Other, It is Claimed. 

IT IS very natural, since the recent change of rulers in England, that the 
genealogy of the English royal family should excite more than ordinary 

interest. In this connection, also, the sources of European royalty are mat- 
ters w^orthy of attention. 

History shows that a few men were the founders of the imperial and 
kingly houses now existing, on the Continent of Europe, careful and patient 
research having reduced the origin of the reigning families to a very small 
number of sources, in comparison with the number of branches and offshoots 
actually represented. Only a score of families share the honor of having fur- 
nished the big and little thrones of Europe, and of this score six stand out as 
of first importance. These are : The Capetian race, the line of Oldenburg, 
the stock of Ethichon, the line of Wettin, the line of Azon d'Este and the line 
of Wittelsbach. 

An old tradition maintains that three at least of these stems — Oldenburg, 
Wettin and Capet — drew their origin from Witikind (died 807), the Saxon 
hero, celebrated for his wars with the great Charlemagne. This tradition does 
not rest on any historical document and is only admitted by genealogists more 
anxious to believe in interesting family legends than in authentic facts 
bequeathed by the learned men of past ages. Some of them have gone so far 
as to try to prove that Napoleon I. descended from Romulus, the founder of 
Rome. 

A serious work could not accept uncontrolled hearsay. Moreover, nobility, 
the most authentically ancient, appears only in the tenth century toward the 
middle of those long centuries of middle-ages faith, visible results of the cru- 
sades. 

It is only at this epoch that one can with any degree of certainty begin the 

274 



ORIGIN OF THE HOUSE OF BOURBON. 275 

reconstruction of genealogical trees, aided by charts and documents of all 
kinds left by monasteries, courtiers and chaplains of the old feudal chateaux, 
which were patiently constructed and which always have been and always 
will be of use to those who study that curious period. 

FOUNDATION OF THE CAPETIAN DYNASTY. 

The Capetian race has been fully described and analyzed in all its phases, 
its grandeur, and also its decadence, by the admirable histories of Michelet, 
Anquetil and Henri Martin. Hugh Capet — so called from a sort of hood he 
was accustomed to wear on his head — Count of Paris, son of Hugh the Great, 
ascended the throne of France in 987 and founded the third French dynasty 
called the Capetian. Hugh Capet — who some say was issue of Witikind — had 
a son, Robert 11. the Pious (970-1031), whose oldest son, Henry L, was 
King of France from 103 1 to 1060, and whose third son, Robert I. the elder 
(died 1075), was made Duke of Burgundy, and founded: 

First, the original house of that name — extinct with Philippe de Rouvre in 
1 36 1 — ; and, secondly, the House of Burgundy-Portugal, which after the 
emigration of Aviz and of Braganza, 1640, reigned in Portugal up to 
Pedro IV., great-grandfather of Charles I., the present King. 

ORIGIN OF THE HOUSE OF BOURBON. 

Henry IV. descended in a direct line from Robert of France, Count of 
Clermont, sixth son of Saint Louis, who, married to Beatrice of Bourbon, 
took the name, title and arms of the house of Bourbon, of which his wife was 
the last representative and heir. 

Then the searcher comes to Louis XIIL, whose oldest son, Louis XIV., 
had two sons, the oldest, Louis, Duke of Burgundy (1682-17 12), continued 
the filiation of the elder branch, which became extinct in 1883 in the person 
of the Count de Chambord; the other son, Phillippe, Duke of Anjou, became 
in 1700 King of Spain under the name of Philippe V., and founded the House 
of Bourbon-Anjou ; it became the eldest branch of the Bourbons after the 
death of the Count de Chambord, and which gave birth to the royal branches 
of Spain and of the two Sicilies, Ducal in Parma and Princely in Spain. 



276 SOURCE OF THE HOUSE OP HAPSBURG. 

Therefore the late Count de Chambord; Don Carlos, Duke of Madrid; 
Francois II., ex-King of the Two Sicilies; Francois, Duke of Machena; 
Robert I., ex-Duke of Parma; Philippe, Count of Paris, and his son, the Duke 
of Orleans; Dom Pedro, ex-Crown Prince of Brazil, and Alphonse XIII., 
King of Spain, are all Capets, for they are descended in a direct and rigorously 
male line from Hugh Capet, of glorious memory. 

ANCESTRY OF THE CZAR OF ALL THE RUSSIAS. 

The line of Oldenburg has for authentic ancestor Thierry the Fortunate 
(died 1440), Count of Oldenburg, issue of Ringelgeim, descendant also of 
Witikind. Thierry the Fortunate received by marriage the Duchy of 
Schleswig-Holstein ; and his son, Christian I., took the name of Schleswig- 
Holstein and was elected King of Scandinavia in 1448. 

His descendants founded the Houses of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg- 
Augustenburg ; Schleswig-Holstein-Sunderburg-Glucksburg, Holstein-Got- 
torp and Oldenburg. Christian IX., King of Denmark, Prince von Schleswig- 
Holstein-Sonderburg-Glucksburg ; his son, George I., King of Greece; Ernest 
Gonthier, Duke von Schleswig-Holstein; Frederic Ferdinand, Duke of 
Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glucksburg; Peter, Grand Duke of Olden- 
burg; and the Czar Nicholas II., Emperor of Russia, issue by the male line of 
Duke Charles Peter Ulric von Holstein-Gottorp and who, as son of the Grand 
Duchess Anne Romanoff, ascended the throne of Russia in 1762, under the 
title of Peter III., have therefore Oldenburg for their family name, as they are 
all descended from Thierry the Fortunate, Count of Oldenburg, by the male 
line. 

Therefore the Czar of all the Russias, so often called a Romanoff, is only 
such by the female line; for he is from the Holstein-Gottorps, and is conse- 
quently an Oldenburg. 

SOURCE OF THE HOUSE OF HAPSBURG. 

Ethichon, Duke of Alsace, who lived along about 684, is the authentic 
source of the Hapsburg-Lorraine and the Baden Houses. Two branches 



ORIGIN OF THE HOUSE OF HOHENZOLLERN. 277 

became at once apparent in the descendants of Adalbert I., son of Ethichon — 
that of Hapsburg, founded by Rodboton (died 1027), son of Gontran the 
Rich, Count of Brisgau; and the branch of Lorraine founded in 1048 by 
Girard III., great-grandson of Evrard III., Count of Alsace and brother of 
Gontran the Rich. 

In 1737 Maria Theresa, daughter of Charles VI., last descendant and heir 
of the Hapsburg branch, married Francis Etienne, who had just exchanged his 
Duchy of Lorraine and of Bar for Tuscany. Thus, after thirty-two genera- 
tions, the two principal lines of this powerful house became united after having 
been separated for over 1,000 years. 

Consequently, Francis Joseph, Emperor of Austria and King of Hun- 
gary; Ferdinand IV., ex-Grand Duke of Tuscany; Frederic, Grand Duke of 
Baden; and Marie Christine, Regent of Spain, being all descendants of 
Ethichon, Duke of Alsace, have as their family name that of Ethichon. 

ORIGIN OF THE HOUSE OF HOHENZOLLERN. 

The Royal House of Hohenzollern, which some persons attach, without 
sufficient proof, however, to that of Ethichon, derives its origin from Thas- 
silon, first Count of Zollern, who lived about the year 800, and who had for 
descendant Burchard (died 1061), Count of Zollern, from the Chateau of 
Zollern, in the Regency of Sigmaringen in Prussia. The said Burchard was 
the ancestor of the Counts of Zollern, one of whom, Count Eitel-Frederic, was 
the father of two sons, who, toward 1300, founded: 

The elder, Eitel-Frederic II., Count of Zollern, the elder non-reigning 
Princely line of Sigmaringen, in consequence of the acquisition toward 1500 
of the County of Sigmaringen; the second, Count Rodolphe Frederic IL, 
Burgrave of Nuremberg, the younger reigning, imperial and royal line of 
Germany. 

Hence, Leopold, Prince von Hohenzollern ; his brother, Charles L, King 
of Roumania; William II., Emperor of Germany and King of Prussia, and 
Prince Albert of Prussia, Regent of Brunswick, being all issue of Thassilon, 
Count of Zollern, their name is Thassilon of Zollern. 



218 WHEN THE SAXON HOUSE FIRST APPEARED. 

WHEN THE SAXON HOUSE FIRST APPEARED. 

Conrad the Great, Count of Wettin (died 1156), said to be issue of 
Witikind and of Thierri Buzici, a contemporary of Otto I., and father of the 
first Burgrave of Misnia, is the first Count of Wettin of whom authentic 
record is found. Wettin, which has given its name tO' the line founded by 
Conrad the Great, is a castle situated near Halle, and was built by the Bur- 
graves of Misnia, ancestors of Conrad. 

One of the descendants of Conrad was Frederic U. the Gentle (1411- 
1464), son of Frederic the Warlike (1369-1428), first Elector of Saxony, 
and he had two sons, Ernest and Albert, who founded the two lines of 
Ernestine and Albertine, of the House of Saxony, which still exist. 

As to the elder line, it is now divided as follows : Saxe- Weimar, Saxe- 
Meiningen and Hildburghausen, Saxe-Altenburg and Saxe-Coburg and 
Gotha. The younger branch only comprises the Royal House of Saxony. 

Therefore Charles Alexander, Grand Duke of Saxe- Weimar-Eisenach; 
George II., Duke of Saxe-Meiningen and Hilburghausen ; Ernest, Duke of 
Saxe-Altenburg ; Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha ; Albert Edward, 
King of England as Edward VH., son of Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha; 
Leopold n., King of the Belgians, son of Prince Leopold von Saxe-Coburg 
and Gotha, who ascended the throne of Belgium in 1831 as Leopold L; 
Ferdinand, Prince of Bulgaria, son of Prince August von Saxe-Coburg and 
Gotha; Albert, King of Saxony, and Charles L, King of Portugal, grandson 
of Prince Ferdinand von Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, who by his marriage with 
the Queen Dona Maria da Gloria became King of Portugal in 1836; these 
are all issue in direct male line of Conrad the Great, Count of Wettin, there- 
fore their patronymic is Von Weetin. 

Azon, Margrave of Este (died 964), is ancestor of the line of Azon of 
Este, whose descendants are the House of Guelph, or Brunswick-Luneburg, 
and the Houses of Hanover and of Liechtenstein. The Duke Ernest of Celle 
died 1546, descendant of Azon in a direct line, was the real source of the new 
houses of Brunswick and Luneburg which came to the throne of Great Britain 




Pi 
< 

Q 
O 

K 
u 

l-H 



I 

w 
o 

Q 
O 

W 

H 

I— I 







o 

Q. 
O 

a 

ffi: 



O 

o 



AS TO THE HOUSE OF SAVOY. 281 

in the person of George I., son of the Elector Ernest August of Hanover and 
Sophia, granddaughter of James I., King of England. 

The House of Brunswick also possessed the throne of Hanover from 1814 
and 1837 to September 20, 1866, when King George V. was dispossessed by 
William L, King of Prussia. 

Ditmar, Lord of Liechtenstein, founder of the house of that name, 
descends almost certainly from Adalbero, a descendant of Azon, Margrave of 
Este. 

EDWARD Vn.'S FAMILY NAME IS "AZON." 

According tO' this, then, His Majesty Edward VII. and the late Queen 

Victoria, Empress of India; her beloved cousin Ernest August, Duke of 

Cumberland and claimant to the throne of Hanover; John II., Prince of 

Liechtenstein; and Charles, Prince of Leichtenstein, have Azon as their 

family name. 

AS TO THE HOUSE OF SAVOY. 

Some genealogists make the House of Savoy descend from Witikind, or 
at least assign to it a royal origin, but it has no authentic tree until the time 
of Humbert I. of the white hands, born toward the end of the tenth century, 
died in 1048, and whom King Rodolphe II. of Burgundy created Count of 
Savoy in recognition of his military and administrative services. The Counts 
of Savoy became Dukes and took possession of the throne of Sicily in 1713, 
and of that of Sardinia in 1720, in the person of Victor Amedee 11. Charles 
Emmanuel I., Duke of Savoy, great-grandfather of the said King of Sardinia, 
Victor Amede-^ II., died in 1630, leaving two. sons. 

The elder, Victor Amedee I. (1587-1637), founded the elder royal line of 
Sardinia, which became extinct in 1831 in the person of King Charles Felix; 
the younger son, Thomas, Prince oi Carignan (1596- 1650), was the ancestor 
of the princely line of Savoy-Carignan, which succeeded the elder branch of 
the throne of Sardinia in the person of King Charles Albert (1798-1849), 
great-great-grandfather of the present King of Italy. The name of this family 
is then Savoy and not Savoy-Carignan, which is only a posterior family title 
and has nothing- to do with the founder of the race. 



282 WHERE THE SULTAN COMES FROM. 

Bernadotte, a French general born in Pau (1764-1844), was adopted in 
1810 by Cliarles XIII., King of Sweden, to whom he succeeded in 1818 under 
the name of Charles XIV. Oscar II., the present King of Sweden, is a grand- 
son of General Bernadotte, and is, therefore, a Bernadotte. 

THE HOUSE OF THE MONACOS. 

Jacques Francois Leonor Goyon de Matignon, descendant of a Breton 
family — the filiation can be traced back tO' Etienne Gouyon, who married Lude 
Matignon toward the year 1200 — married, on October 26, 17 15, Louise Hyp- 
polyte, heiress of the Grimaldis, Princess of Monaco, the male line of this 
house being extinct in 1731 in the person of Antoine Grimaldi. 

So Jacques Goyon de Matignon took the name and arms of the Grimaldis 
in virtue of a cession signed the day of his marriage and confirmed the i8th 
of December, 17 16. His son Honore Goyon de Matignon became Prince of 
Monaco under the name of Honore IV. Grimaldi. 

The present reigning Prince of Monaco descends in a direct line from 
Prince Honore IV., and his family name is, therefore, Gouyon, and not 
Goyon de Matignon, as has been erroneously stated. 

The young King Alexander of Servia and his father, ex-King Milan 
(Count of Takova), are of the Obrenovitchs, a house which has reigned in 
Servia, with hereditary rights, since November 6th, 18 17. 

The present Prince of Montenegro is a direct descendant of Danilo Petro- 
vitch Niegoch, who obtained in 171 1 the hereditary right of choosing the 
wladika chief ecclesiastic from his family, and one of whose heirs was in 1852 
proclaimed hereditary Sovereign Prince of Montenegro, under the name of 
Danilo I. Nicolas I.'s family name is, therefore, Niegoch. 

WHERE THE SULTAN COMES FROM. 

The Sultan of Turkey, Abdul Hamid Khan, calls himself the thirty-fourth 
sovereign of the Osman family. It has been impossible for us to verify beyond 
four or five generations this assertion, which we give simply for information. 

Pope Leo XIII. was born Joachim Pecci, the loth of March, 1810, at 



THERE IS NO HOUSE OF ROMANOFF 283 

Carpineto. His years make him the oldest sovereign in Europe, but the sov- 
ereign who reigned the longest was Queen Victoria. 

Among the results which become apparent by the groupments in races 
are some that are very curious and but little known. For instance, it is not 
typical to find classed in the same family, bearing the same name, those hostile 
brothers who call themselves Don Carlos and Alphonse, the King of Spain, 
as well as the Count de Chambord and the Count of Paris, cousins of the last 
hour, so to speak. 

The Bourbon genealogical tree, followed rigorously in the male line, shows 
at a glance that the actual head of that great house is Don Carlos, Duke of 
Madrid ; and after him in order are : The little King of Spain ; the Duke of 
Seville; King Francis, of the two Sicilies; the Duke of Marchena, and the 
ex-Duke Robert I., of Parma, each representing a branch of the elder line of 
the Bourbon family, which has become Spanish since the death of the Count 
de Chambord. 

The Count of Paris and the young Prince Pedro, of Brazil, son of the 
Coimt d'Eu, remain the heads of the two branches of the younger line of the 
Bourbons. 

THERE IS NO HOUSE OF ROMANOFF. 

Tracing back these various royal houses it will be seen that the houses of 
Braganza, of Romanoff and of Grimaldi are extinct, heraldically speaking, 
since no descendant in the male line exists. 

It is not easy tO' explain why they are continued by fictions. Would King 
Charles I., of Portugal fear to lose his throne if he were to proclaim his descent 
from the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha ? 

Does the Prince of Monaco imagine that the old feudal nobility of the 
Goyons of Matignon is not the equal of that of the Grimaldis, which in all 
probability took its rise in some wholesale merchant of Genoa ? 

Coldly reasoned out, these royal genealogical trees teach a sort of elevated 
philosophy which dominates parties and political struggles. Thus years were 
spent in wrangling over the priority of right of such or such a Bourbon, and a 
good deal of blood, blue and otherwise, was spilled. 



284 THERE IS NO HOUSE OF ROMANOFF. 

In this chapter we have gone up the male ascending line to the most 
ancient authentically proved ancestors; next we have taken this founder's 
name, whenever it did not appear to us to be a first name common to several 
persons, or, in default of this, we have taken the first title borne ; then we have 
given this appellation to all the descendants in the male line from the founder 
of the race. 

If the research for the family name of a Majesty, or of a Royal Highness, 
or of a representative of the higher nobility, presents so many difficulties it 
is because students are brought to a halt at every step by the confusing prob- 
lem of continuity and by continual changes of name. At every stage of the 
male ascending line new difficulties are encountered, and thus it often happens 
thai poor genealogists, lost in these attractive researches, get thoroughly mixed 
up and at last arrive at an elaborate series of false results. This explains the 
involuntary errors often found in the best heraldic and genealogical compila- 
tions, even in those that are recognized authorities in such matters. 

Royal families, and those assimilated to them, have, like all other families, 
a patronymic. Preceding the title that was bought, ceded or conquered, they 
have the family name, drawn from him who was the father of the race or of the 
house; while on another hand it is generally admitted that one ought legally 
to take and bear the name of his father. 

In virtue of the principle enunciated above, and which, in common law as 
well as in genealogy, requires that one must bear the name of his father, 
comparatively late researches followed strictly the rule of mounting always 
in the male ascending line. 

Now, a few words as to the word patronymic. What is understood by it ? 
The Greek etymology (pater, father; onoma, name) informs us that it is the 
name common to all the descendants of a race, drawn from him who was the 
father of that race. Everybody possesses a family name, but the question 
becomes embarrassing when it becomes necessary to define the origin of that 
family name. 

Sometimes researches show it to have been primarily a nickname ; some- 
times it indicated a profession, a quality or a custom, as in the case of Hugh 
Capet, etc. 



THERE IS NO HOUSE OF ROMANOFF. 285 

What is certain is that the results of all the patient researches which have 
been made on this subject go to show that the family names of many reigning 
families and of many old noble families, have almost always been formed by 
the name of the chateau (castle) which was the cradle of the race, the butt or 
stock of the genealogical tree. 

In the origin of races only what we call Christian names are to be met with, 
and these, in connection with some sort of a qualification, sufficed for our 
forefathers to distinguish each other. In casting an eye over early history, 
whether Egyptian, Greek, Roman or Gallic, only a single appellation is ever 
found for designating any one. 

Whether the person is Sesostris, Alcibiades, Romulus, Hannibal, Alex- 
ander or Vercingetorix, this name alone is handed down tO' us, though it is 
rarely preceded or followed by an indication of the reign, character or profes- 
sion, but always and certainly free of the string of titles which is so dear to our 
epoch. 

Whether, of course, the erudite genealogists are usually right, or are in 
the wrong in the majority of cases, it is not to be denied that there have 
been many erroneous impressions prevalent in the minds of the people 
generally, regarding the genealogical trees of reigning royal families. 

It certainly should be one of the easiest things in the world to trace such 
a line as that of the Emperor of Russia, but this does not appear to be the 
case. 

Royalty is ever In the fierce blaze of the light of publicity, and it is an 
impossibility for a sovereign — or any member of his family — to escape the 
keen scrutiny to which they are forever subjected; and that is why it is so 
remarkable that the mistakes made in tracing the descent of the various 
royal and imperial families should ever have occurred. 



CHAPTER XV. 

Victoria's First Year on the Throne Sees the Telegraph Made a Practical Certainty 
— Progress Made in Electrical Inventions — Telephone, Phonograph, Light- 
ing Cities, the Trolley, the Dynamo, Electric Transportation — Textile Prog- 
ress — Sanitary Science. 

THE first year of Victoria's reign was a most important one in the his- 
tory of telegraphy, for it was in 1837 that Morse made his system a 
practical certainty. The first telegraph line over which messages 
were sent was operated between Paddington and Drayton, England, a dis- 
tance of thirteen miles, in 1839, and one at Calcutta, India, for a distance of 
twenty-one miles. In 1844 practical telegraphy was assured under the Morse 
system, which speedily superseded all others. In that year Morse erected 
the first American telegraph line between Baltimore and Washington, a dis- 
tance of forty miles, and sent the first message over it on May 27th of that 
year. 

Victoria also lived to see the invention of the quadruplex telegraphy, the 
sending of four separate messages over the same wire, two in one direction 
and two in another. This was followed by Gray's harmonic system, by 
means of which a large number of messages are transmitted at the same time 
over the same wire; and later by Delaney's synchronous multiplex system, 
by means of which as many as seventy-two messages are sent over the same 
wire at the same time. 

In 1839 the first successful experiment in telegraphing under water by 
means of an insulated wire, or cable, as a conductor, was noted. This was 
tried at Calcutta under the River Hugli. In 1842 Morse showed that sub- 
marine telegraphy was practical. In 1848, a cable, insulated with gutta- 
percha, was laid under water between New York and Jersey City, and suc- 
cessfully operated. In 185 1, a submarine cable was laid and successfully 
operated under the English Channel. 

In 1861 a deep-sea cable was successfully laid and operated between 

286 



VICTORIA'S FIRST YEAR ON THE THRONE. 287 

Malta and Alexandria, and in 1864 one was laid across the Persian Gulf. In 
1866 the first ocean cable was laid, and since then countries far apart have by 
means of deep-sea cables been brought into intimate relation. 

At the beginning of the nineteenth century electric telegraphy was 
unknown, and up to the middle of the century was of doubtful commercial 
value. Within the century the overland mileage expanded to approximately 
5,000,000 and the submarine to 170,000. Throughout the world more 
than 200,000,000 messages are sent per year. 

The opening of the twentieth century saw the demonstration of the prac- 
ticability of telegraphing without wires. An instrument by means of which 
this could be done was brought nearest to perfection by Signor Marconi, a 
young Italian, in 1896. With it he succeeded in sending electric waves 
through ether or space, and without the use of wires, a distance of four miles, 
'upon SaHsbury Plain, England. Later, he transmitted messages across Bris- 
tol Channel, a distance of 8.7 miles, and subsequently across the English 
Channel, a distance of eighteen miles. W. J. Clarke, of the United States, 
improved upon Marconi's methods, and has shown some wonderful results. 
Whether space telegraphy will eventually supersede that by wires is a prob- 
lem. 

The telephone was an evolution. The string telephone of Wheatstone, 
showed in 1819, that the vibrations of the air produced by a musical instru- 
ment were very minute and could be transmitted hundreds of yards by a 
string with delicate diaphragms. But while the string telephone served to 
confirm the fact that sounds are vibrations of the atmosphere which affect 
the tympanum of the ear, it was deemed impracticable till after telegraphy 
became an accepted science in 1837. 

In 1837 it was discovered that a magnetic bar could emit sounds when 
rapidly magnetized and demagnetized; and that those sounds corresponded 
with the number of currents producing them. This led to the discovery, 
between 1847 ^"^ 1852, of several kinds of electric vibrators adapted to the 
production of musical sounds and their transmission. Yet no one was bold 
enough to admit the possibility of transmitting human speech by electricity. 

However, relief was at hand. Daniel Drawbaugh, of the United States, 



288 BIRTH OF THE PHONOGRAPH. 

who had made a study of telephony, had transmitted musical sound, sound of 
the voice, and other sounds in the same pitch. This was all that could be 
done till some means was discovered of holding up the constant onward flow 
of the electric current along a wire by introducing a variable resistance such 
as would impart to simple pitch of voice the quality or timbre of speech. 
Drawbaugh achieved this in 1859-60 by introducing into the circuit a small 
quantity of powdered charcoal in a tumbler, through which the current was 
passing. Charcoal, being a poor conductor, and in small grains, offered 
that variable resistance to the current necessary to reproduce tones and 
syllables of speech. 

Later, two inventors, Bell and Gray, both of the United States, reached 
the conclusion that transmission of articulate speech was impossible unless 
they could produce electrical undulations corresponding exactly with the 
vibrations of the air or sound waves. Both brought this similarity about by 
introducing a variable resistance into the electric current by means of an 
interposing liquid. Afterwards, Berliner introduced into the transmitter the 
principle of the microphone. Edison followed with a sender, in which one of 
the electrodes was of soft carbon, the other of metal. Then came Hughes 
and Blake with senders, in which both electrodes were hard carbon. 

Then came other modifications of the sender, till the form of telephone 
now in use was arrived at. 

BIRTH OF THE PHONOGRAPH. 

As to the phonograph, Dr. Young, in 1807, showed how sound could be 
recorded by the tuning-fork. It was another wonder among inventions. 
Edison produced his machine in 1878 and soon afterward others came for- 
ward with the graphophone. Again, Berliner improved upon the phono- 
graph by using for his tracing surface a horizontal disk of zinc covered with 
wax. By chemical treatment, the tracings made in the wax were etched into 
the zinc, and thus made permanent. Edison made further and ingenius 
improvements upon his phonograph by attaching hearing tubes for the ear 
to the sound receiver, and by the employment of an electric motor to revolve 
the wax cylinder. By the attachment of enlarged trumpets and other devices, 



BIRTH OF THE PHONOGRAPH. 289 

every form of modern phonograph has been rendered capable of reproduc- 
ing in great perfection the various sounds of speech, song, and instrument. 

There is apparently no limit to the uses of electricity, and this being 
realized the perfection of the dynamo was sought. This creation has become 
a mighty factor, transportation of passengers on traction lines, and run- 
ning various sorts of machinery. 

The essential parts of an ordinary dynamo are: 

The electro-magnets arranged in circular form upon part of the frame- 
work of the machine. 

The iron coils or armatures, mounted in a circle upon a wheel. When the 
wheel revolves, the armatures pass close in front of the electro-magnets, cut- 
ting through their fields of force, and thereby inducing electric current. 

The commutator, which consists usually of a series of copper blocks 
arranged around the axle of the armatures, and insulated from the axle and 
from each other. The current passes from the armatures to the commutator. 
If the current be an alternating one, the commutator changes it into a con- 
tinuous one, and the reverse may also be accomplished. 

The brushes, which are thin strips of copper or carbon, are brought to 
bear at proper points upon the commutator, making connection with each 
coil or sets of coils. They carry the corrected current to the outside line or 
lines. 

The outside line or lines, to carry the current away to the motor. 

The pulley for strap-belting, by means of which the water or steam power 
used is made to turn the dynamo machine. 

Then comes the motor, fed by the dynamo, which in turn imparts the 
power to the machinery to which it is attached. 

The nineteenth century also saw, within the period of Victoria's reign, the 
general introduction of improvements whereby the lighting or illumination 
of cities was brought to a state of almost perfection. First there was the gas- 
light, which, in turn, was succeeded, although not displaced, by the electric 
light. The advancement made in the building of dynamos furnished 
a generator for electricity cheaper and stronger than the early-discov- 
ered voltaic battery, and then the world was favored with the arc light 



290 ELECTRICITY AS A TRANSPORTATION FACTOR. 

and the incandescent bulb. In the present age Hght of such brilliancy and 
power can be made that, used in the way of searchlights, for instance, either 
on sea or land, objects many miles distant become distinguishable, 

ELECTRICITY AS A TRANSPORTATION FACTOR. 

When the power and uses of steam were brought out it was thought that 
the problem of the transportation of human beings and property of all kinds 
was solved at last, but with the discoveries made by the end of the nineteenth 
century of the adaptability of the electric fluid the motive power, which had 
once excited such wonder, was no longer regarded so highly. 

Electricity, as a force for moving vehicles of every and all descriptions, 
whether over iron rails or along highways, and, for that matter, indifferent 
roads or even what might be designated as "rough" country, has demon- 
strated its usefulness. In 1835 an inventive genius moved a small carriage 
by a current from voltaic cells, and in 1851 some of the experiments were 
highly satisfactory; but it was not earlier than 1872 that the electric power 
was put to practical use in England and upon the European continent. 

At the opening of the twentieth century electric locomotives were 
already common, ordinary sights; the horse, and in many instances, the cable 
power, of the street traction Hues in cities, had been superseded by the elec- 
tric trolley, the storage-battery and the "third-rail." 

Essential features of electric railways are: 

The power-house, containing the dynamos which generate the electricity. 

The feed-wire, usually of stout copper, running the length of the tracks 
of the system, and supported on poles or laid in conduits. 

The trolley-wire over the center of the track, supported by insulated 
cross-wires passing from poles on opposite sides of the tracks, and con- 
nected at proper intervals with the feed-wire. 

The trolley-pole of metal jointed to the top of the car, and fitted with a 
spring which presses the wheel on the end of the pole up against the trolley- 
wire with a force of about fifteen pounds, and which also serves to conduct 
the electricity down through the car to the motor. 

The motor, which is suspended from the car truck, and passes its power 



CRIMINALS EXECUTED BY ELECTRICITY. 291 

to the car axle by means of a spur gearing. The power requisite for an ordi- 
nary trolley-car is about fifteen horse-power. 

The track and the cars on the electric lines are the same as on any other. 

CRIMINALS EXECUTED BY ELECTRICITY. 

Among other uses to which electricity has been put is that of acting the 
part of the executioner. The man condemned to death is securely strapped 
to a chair, a powerful current is sent racing through his body, and the victim 
of the vengeance of the law never knows what is the matter, so easy is the 
transition from this earth to the far beyond. 

In nearly all the arts and manufactures the electric fluid plays its part, 
while in medicine and surgery the Roentgen (or X) ray — which is an electri- 
cal light — affords the physician or surgeon the opportunity of looking into 
the interior of the human body and viewing every nerve, tendon, artery, 
vessel, organ, etc. This X-ray is so powerful and searching that it pene- 
trates dense bodies in a most astonishing way, and nothing, apparently, is 
able to elude it. 

Electricity now runs clocks all over the world, drives vessels through the 
water, fires cannon, is the good genius of electrotyping and electroplating, 
explodes torpedoes in time of war and tears rocks to pieces in the quarries, 
heats houses and rail-cars, soothes pain, welds metals, and is the most relia- 
ble of agents for signal systems. 

Just before Victoria ascended the throne the spinning frame was intro- 
duced, and after that betterments were added. England greeted this device 
and its improvements gladly. 

In 1830 it required the constant attention of one spinner to oversee 
twenty slow-running spindles, whereas, in 1896, the same attendant could, 
with less effort, "tend" seventy-five or more of the high speed type. 

The loom of 1901 bears no more resemblance to the first one made than 
the infant Stephenson locomotive did to the giant mogul of the twentieth 
century. Also, in the making of carpets and rugs, tapestries, embroideries, 
all sorts of cloths, laces, knitted goods, etc., the devices of the inventors' 
genius wrought such changes that some of the machines Queen Victoria 



292 IMPROVEMENTS IN SANITATION. 

saw before she died seemed to be capable of doing everything except actually 
think and talk. 

IMPROVEMENTS IN SANITATION. 

When Victoria ascended the throne the science of sanitation was in its 
infancy. Public health was neglected, and plagues, pestilence and dis- 
ease often swept away thousands. At the opening of the nineteenth century 
the great scourge of Great Britain was the dread jail or typhus fever. As 
late as 1846 it was estimated that in Dublin alone there were 40,000 cases of 
fever, with a total in Ireland of 1,000,000 cases. There were 10,000 deaths 
in Liverpool, a city especially prone to the disease; while in Edinburgh one 
person out of every nine of the population was attacked, and one out of 
every eight of the sick died. 

The deaths from fever in London during October, November, and 
December, 1898, were but 296. London has an estimated population of 
4,504,766, and the "fever" in the report included typhoid, simple and ill- 
defined forms of fever, as well as typhus. This makes a death-rate of but 0.26 
per 1,000. 

Had sanitary science no other trophy, its votaries could still boast of the 
great benefits to humanity brought about by their labors. This is but one 
of many; thus, scurvy, the great bane of the navy, is now a disease that few 
physicians have the misfortune to see, or patients to endure. Then that dis- 
ease somewhat akin to typhus, and until within the memory of the fathers 
confounded with it, hence called typhoid fever, is likewise fast disappearing, 
more rapdly in cities than in rural communities however. The suppression 
of typhoid proceeds with equal step with the introduction of a public water 
supply in our towns, the adoption of the proper means to furnish this water 
unpolluted, and the proper removal of domestic waste through sewers. 

Sanitary science had its origin in the nineteenth century, and while no 
one would assert that the science came into being at a fixed date, one can fix 
a period of time when the conditions working through the ages were so 
shaped that, perforce, the problems of sanitation could thereafter be treated 
more in a scientific and less in an empirical method than before. This time 



IMPROVEMENTS IN SANITATION. 293 

is associated with the beginning of the reign of Queen Victoria of England, 
since the first Act of Parhament for the registration of births, marriages, and 
deaths was passed in 1837, and the beginning made of accurately gathering 
information which is to the sanitarian what the pulse is to the physician. 

Sanitary science is wider than sanitation in its technical sense. One 
would not care to assert that philanthropic efifort and sweet charity are 
resultants of the development of sanitary science, — very few care to assert 
an evident untruth. 

But the influence of this study has been widespread and beneficial. The 
whole round of social science is also permeated with the truths demonstrated 
by the sanitation, and is likewise deeply indebted to its teachings. 

The field broadens greatly as we view it. 

In the construction of dwellings, for example, the small, low ceiled 
rooms, whose earthen or stone floors were covered with rushes seldom 
removed, the absorbers of whatever might fall upon the floor; the unpaved, 
unswept, and unsewered street; the domestic water supply but a well into 
which filters the water from the adjoining cesspool, — these and many similar 
destroyers of health and comfort can no longer be found among nations 
classed as enlightened in our school geographies. 

Even the improvements of half a century ago — the tenements impro- 
vised out of the deserted mansions of the well-to-do, with the additions 
built on the rear of the lot to increase the density of the population and the 
rent of the owner (as well as the death-rate), are disappearing, and in their 
places are dwellings capable of furnishing air and light to all of the residents. 

It is asserted that sanitary science is only increasing the hardships and 
adding to the number of mouths to be fed, without opening up new ways 
to earn one's bread. Sanitary science strives not only to prevent disease, 
but also to promote health, and its progress is fully as marked in its efforts 
at promotion as in those of prevention. 

If, thereby, people die less readily, they remain healthier and more 
capable of earning a living. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

What the Genius of the Inventor Has Done in the Way of Improving Arms, Arma- 
ments, and Everything Connected With the Armies and Navies of the World 
During the Period of Victoria's Occupancy of the British Throne — Great 
Guns Able to Penetrate the Thickest Armor Yet Built. 

IN NO way has the progress of invention been made more manifest than 
in the matter of arms for the armies and navies of the world, together 

with the changes in military formations, methods of conducting warfare 
and the building of ships for fighting on the ocean. 

About 1850 an efificient rifle for soldiers was introduced. Before that the 
rifle was a crude affair, the old musket being the principal reliance. Cap- 
tain Minie's rifle was a muzzle-loader. During the Crimean war most of 
the English infantry had improved rifles; the French had them also, but 
the majority of the Russian troops were supplied with the smooth-bore 
musket. The English used rifled siege guns at Sebastopol, but they were 
not a signal success. 

In the Italian war of 1859 rifled cannon were employed by the French, 
and to their use was largely due the victories of the French and Sardinians 
over the Austrians. As early as 1846 an iron breech-loading rifled cannon 
had been invented in France by Major CavalH. This gun fired a shell not 
dissimilar in shape to the projectile employed in the Minie rifled musket. 

In 1854 experiments with a Cavalli gun gave very satisfactory results, 
both in range and accuracy; but the breech mechanism seemed dangerously 
weak, and the rifled guns, adopted by the French and used with such effect 
in Italy, were muzzle-loaders. 

That same year a breech-loading rifled field-piece was invented by Sir 
WilHam George Armstrong. It was made of wrought-iron bars coiled into 
spiral tubes, and welded by forging. The breech was closed with a screw 
which could be quickly withdrawn for loading and sponging the gun. 

The projectile was made of cast-iron, thinly coated with lead, and was 

294 



GENIUS OF THE INVENTOR. 295 

(with its coating) slightly larger in diameter than the bore. The lead coating 
was crushed into the grooves by the force of the powder, the necessary rota- 
tion being thus given to the projectile. 

This gun gave excellent results in range and in rapidity and accuracy of 
fire. Some years after its invention it was adopted in the British service. 

Improved armament brought about changes in military formations, and 
troops are no longer moved, in battle, in dense columns or masses. To do 
this would mean great slaughter. Open formation is the rule for the new 
century. 

The American Civil war saw the first machine-gun, the Catling, but it 
was not used much. Breech-loading rifles were also used, but it was not 
until the Prussian- Austria war of 1866 that an army was fully equipped with 
them. The Prussian troops were supplied throughout. The Prussian rifle 
was not new, for it had been invented by a Thuringian gunsmith, named 
Dreyse, about the time the Minie rifle appeared. Dreyse's arm was known 
as the "zundnadelgewehr," or needle-gun, and its effect was so decisive and 
startling as to cause muzzle-loading rifles everywhere to disappear. 

Yet the needle-gun was but a sorry weapon in comparison to those in use 
in 1 90 1, and was distinctly inferior to the Spencer carbine. Its breech 
mechanism was clumsy, it used a paper cartridge, was not accurate beyond 
three hundred yards, and its effective range was scarcely more than twice 
that distance. 

The Prussian field artillery was the most formidable that had yet 
appeared, and consisted mainly of steel breech-loading rifled guns, which 
were classed as 6-pounders and 4-pounders, though the larger piece fired a 
shell weighing fifteen pounds, and the smaller projectile used a shell weigh- 
ing nine pounds. In the Austrian army the infantry was armed with a 
muzzle-loading rifle, and the artillery consisted entirely of muzzle-loading 
rifled guns. 

Smokeless powder is now in use, which was a thing unknown when 
Victoria came to the throne. An army can be fired upon and yet there will 
be no smoke to reveal the location of the enemy. Artillery pieces "built-up" 
of steel replaced the cast-iron guns. The art of building up guns was of slow 



296 GENIUS OF THE INVENTOR. 

growth, the first efforts in this direction having been made by Sir W. G. 
Armstrong nearly half a century ago. The weight of the projectile of a 
i6-inch gun is 2,370 pounds; the charge of powder weighs 1,060 pounds, 
and the extreme range is more than fourteen miles. The cost of each shot 
is $450, and this does not include the wear and tear of the gun. 

There have also been great improvements made in the construction of 
mortars. 

In rifles, the latest improved carries more than 4,000 yards, and pene- 
trates well-seasoned oak over twenty-four inches. 

Rifles and machine-guns are closely related. Some of the latter can fire 
from 1,000 to 1,500 shots a minute, and generally use the same cartridge as 
the infantry rifle; but some patterns of the gun fire a projectile an inch in 
diameter, and approximate closely in their efifect to a field gun. The gun 
is mounted either on a carriage similar to that of a field-piece or on a tripod. 

Catling guns were very successfully used by the British in the Zulu war 
and in the Soudan, and by our own troops in the battles around Santiago. 

Gardner's is a lighter machine gun than the Gatling. It consists of two 
parallel rifle barrels, and is operated by means of mechanism at the breech, 
which is worked with a crank and can fire 500 shots a minute. 

There are several other types of machine guns, and among the most 
ingenious and effective is the Maxim automatic gun. This has a single 
barrel, about two-thirds of which, from the muzzle towards the breech, is 
surrounded by a water-jacket into which water is automatically injected at 
each discharge, thus rendering overheating impossible. 

The mechanism for operating the gun is at the breech. All that is neces- 
sary is to draw back the trigger to fire the first shot; the recoil of the piece 
again cocks it, and the gun is then automatically fired, the process being kept 
up until all the cartridges in the feed-belt are expended. 

The cartridges are fed to the piece by means of belts holding 333 rounds, 
two or more of the belts being joined together if desired. The Maxim can 
fire ten shots a second, and if every man at the piece were killed the moment 
the first shot was fired the gun would keep on until it had emptied the feed- 
belt, 



CHANGES MADE IN A NAVAL WAY. 299 

CHANGES MADE IN A NAVAL WAY. 

England's navy, toward the end of the seventeenth century, was a little 
more than one hundred ships, 3,840 guns, and 16,269 men; in Britain's strife 
for ocean empire that fleet had grown, by 1800, to 757 vessels, carrying 
26,552 guns, 3,653 officers, and 110,000 men. 

The stately three-decker, with its snowy canvas and maze of rigging, has 
vanished, being replaced by the steel fighting machine. England's navy, in 
1898, included 615 vessels of all sorts, sixty-one of which were battleships. 
The total force was over 110,000 officers and men. England is still Queen 
of the Seas. 

Steam changed the face of the world. It is, however, not only in the 
speed of warships that steam and mechanism have revolutionized fleets. The 
displacement of the 1901 battleship is fully three and one-half times greater 
than that of her heaviest ancestor of the sailing age. With due limitation 
as to length of hull, it is evident that the wind would be, at best, a wholly 
inadequate and untrustworthy motor for this huge structure with its great 
weight of armor. 

During the era of transition, sail and steam were both applied to iron- 
clads — this reaching its climax in the British Agincourt and her sisters, which 
were 400 feet long, 10,600 tons' displacement, with five masts. 

In 1800 the largest naval gun fired but a 42-pound shot, while Great 
Britain has afloat i ,800-pounder breech-loaders which weigh 11 1 tons. 
Before managing monster ordnance such as this, man had to call to his help 
steam as the source of power for the electric, hydraulic, or pneumatic engines, 
which load, elevate, and train the gun. 

At Trafalgar, the Victory drifted before the wind into action. In her 
slow advance, at a speed of one and one-half knots through but 1,200 yards, 
she was for half an hour under the prolonged fire of 200 guns, and yet she 
closed, practically unhurt, with her foes, and lived, not only to win the day, 
but to bring undying glory to the English flag. What a contrast the latest 
sea-fight of the nineteenth century presented in the power of modern ord- 
nance as compared with the puny guns of Nelson's time! 



300 CHANGES MADE IN A NAVAL WAY. 

As soon as an "impenetrable" armor plate was announced the gimmakers 
made a gun that would pierce it. The Krupp 15.7-inch gun develops suffi- 
cient energy to penetrate at the muzzle forty-seven inches of wrought iron. 
The battleship is at best but a series of compromises, each factor of the 
structure yielding or growing as the skill of her designer may indicate. In 
1 90 1 the gun would appear to be the victor, and the power of this mighty 
132-ton rifle not needed on the sea. 

Iron as armor for battleships grew in strength as the power of the gun 
developed, almost solely from increase in thickness, the latter reaching its 
maximum with the British Inflexible, which carries from sixteen to twenty- 
four inches of iron on her belt and citadel. This plating, however, is divided 
and "sandwiched" with wood, there being, exterior to the skin, 6 inches of 
teak, then 12 inches iron, 11 inches teak, and an outer 12-inch plate. 

As armor, iron received its death-blow in the famous tests at Spezia, 
Italy, during the autumn of 1876, when the 100-ton gun, with a full charge, 
at a range of one hundred yards, attacked solid and "sandwich" targets of 
iron and solid targets of steel — the single or aggregate thickness of metal in 
each case being twenty-two inches. 

These trials were undertaken through Italy's desire to build, in the 
Duilio and Dandolo, the most formidable vessels afloat. Steel won the day, 
and the roar of that mighty gun, thundering from the Spezia firing ground, 
sounded the knell of iron armor. 

At the beginning of the twentieth century steel, alloyed with nickel, was 
the strongest combination for armor plate, but the time will come when it 
will undoubtedly prove inadequate to resist the latest improved gun. 



CHAPTER XVII. 

New King the All- Absorbing Subject of Interest — Queen Alexandra loath to 
Take Up Her Kew Duties — Brilliant Opening of Parliament — How Edward 
VII, When Prince of Wales, Became Lost on the Prairies of Illinois, While 
Visiting the United States in 1860 — He Made Friends With the People 
There— Princess Louise and Her Husband, the Duke of Argyll, on a Hunt 
for Spanish Millions Said to be Buried in the Sea — Proposed Scottish 
Memorial for Queen Victoria — Romantic Attachment of the German Crown 
Prince and an English Princess. 

OT until the King and Queen visited the Mausoleum at Frogmore 
on Friday, February 8th, could it really be said that England had 
actually seen the absolute end of the Queen's obsequies. 

Not one other subject than the death and funeral of Queen Victoria had 
been able to rivet the public attention of that country. 

Although the Kaiser had been the cynosure of every eye and his name 
had been on every Englishman's lip for the previous fortnight, his prolonged 
visit to England was not the subject of real interest. 

King Edward VII. was the all-engrossing topic of the day. One might 
almost imagine that he was a person quite other than the Prince of Wales 
of a short three weeks before. 

In a sense he was, for he was not a Prince but a King. In those few 
words lay the whole root of the matter. 

Now that he was King the English people regarded him from quite a 
different view point than vv^hen he was a Prince. 

Moreover, it was evident that a similar change had taken place in the 
King himself. He showed that his accession to the throne had brought 
with it an accession to himself of those attributes of a constitutional monarch 
such as made that kind of a iniler acceptable tO' the English people. 

If proofs were needed his speeches and messages would alone suffice; 
but in other ways, alsa, he showed a keen recognition of how to satisfy his 
subjects. 

301 



302 NEIV KING ALL-ABSORBING SUBIECT OF INTEREST. 

Although it was intended that the final funeral procession at Windsor 
should be strictly private the King himself reversed the order. It was he 
who inspired the curtailment of deep public mourning, and it was his idea 
to personally open Parliament with full instead of semi-state ceremonies. 

He also recognized the hold Queen Alexandra had in the minds and 
hearts of the people. Their reception as they drove through London on 
Thursday, February 7th, was all the King and Queen could desire, and there 
was little doubt that Queen Alexandra would be a potent factor in the new 
court, which the English people, especially those in high society, and the 
London tradesmen, hoped would eclipse any since the glorious times of 
Queen Elizabeth. 

In this connection it was interesting to note that the most important 
change which took place in the House of Lords preparatory to the cere- 
mony of Thursday, February 14th, was in the throne. 

Instead of occupying a chair by the side of the throne, as did Prince 
Consort Albert when Queen Victoria opened Parliament, Queen Alexandra 
occupied a throne side by side with the King, which was practically a replica 
of the existing throne. 

In fact the pageant was such as Englishmen had not seen for hundreds 
of years. 

When the Queen opened Parliament she made some statement of the 
state ceremonials. The King did not. He had decided to revive in every 
way the ojutward pomp and glory of the monarchy. 

No man knew better how to do this than Edward VII., who, despite his 
geniality and proverbial bonhomie, well deserved the description of the 
French writer who called him the Moltke of etiquette. 

In all the homage paid to King Edward, Queen Alexandra was but little 
heard of. 

A diplomat conversant with court details said Her Majesty assumed her 
increased responsibilities with a feeling almost akin to regret. 

'T am growing so old," she said, "that I almost feel unable to face the 
arduous duties before me." 

The Queen's appearance belied her words. It was her growing deaf- 



BRILLIANT SCENE AT OPENING OF PARLIAMENT. 303 

ness which led to the remark. In other ways she was not so strong as 
formerly. 

The rumor that King Edward was suffering from cancer (promptly 
denied by Sir Felix Semon, physician for diseases of the throat to the 
National Hospital for Epilepsy and Paralysis) probably arose from the fact 
that Sir Felix Semon was attending Queen Alexandra for sore throat, to 
which she had been extremely susceptible, although there are no traces of 
serious disease. 

She would have been only too glad if destiny had permitted her to finish 
her days in England as Princess of Wales, the greater freedom and sim- 
plicity of the minor title being much preferable to this woman, who, by her 
kindness and goodness, had endeared herself to^ her adopted people. 

Since the death of Queen Victoria, Queen Alexandra frequently 
expressed herself as determined to carry out as far as possible those old-time 
public and private customs which made the former rulers of the English 
court so different from others in Europe. 

BRILLIANT SCENE AT THE OPENING OF PARLIAMENT. 

The King's first responsible experience of the relations of the Sovereign 
to Parliament came when the Cabinet's programme for the coming session 
was presented to him. It was called the King's speech, but, as throughout 
the last reign, this was a mere constitutional formality for the sake of retain- 
ing the political identity of the government and the throne. 

It was presented to him by the Duke of Devonshire at a meeting of the 
Privy Council at Marlborough House. The opening of Parliament by King 
Edward was the most sumptuous official function of many years. It was 
visible to only a favored few who were able to gain admittance to the House 
of Lords. 

How to find room for officialdom and nobility who demanded admission 
to the little chamber was a source of great anxiety to the Lord Chamberlain. 

Usually not more than a dozen Peers attend the meetings of the House 
of Lords. Out of 583 members the chamber contains seats for only 250, 



304 BRILLIANT SCENE AT OPENING OF PARLIAMENT. 

and what was to become of the large number of others who attended for 
the first time in their lives no one could imagine. 

The women occupied four-fifths of the room. Custom and privilege 
required the presence of the Peeresses on this occasion, and they fairly 
overwhelmed the house. Not only Peeresses with daughters filled their own 
gallery, but absorbed the strangers' gallery and overflowed most of the floor 
of the house, crowding Dukes, Earls, Barons and Bishops completely out. 

Lucky indeed were the few hundred who were able to gain admittance 
to the precincts of the house. 

Consolation was found for 700 others in the royal gallery outside the 
chamber, where they could see the King and Queen pass from the robing 
room to the House of Lords but not witness the ceremonial inside. 

The spectacle surpassed anything of the kind of the last century, 
although Victoria opened Parliament several times, the last in 1886. 

This was on a grander scale, and the extra throne chair referred to above 
was made for the Queen, who sat at the King's left under the huge royal 
canopy. 

The Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Connaught sat at either side, one 
step lower. Lord Salisbury stood at the right of the throne, and the Lord 
Chancellor at the left. 

Grouped around were numerous Princes and Princesses, and outside of 
them on the right were the foreign Ministers and their wives. 

On the left, on cross benches and front side seats the Peers were ranged 
in strict order of precedence. Rising behind them in numerous rows v/ere 
seats for the leading Peeresses in order of their rank, the highest being 
nearest the throne. 

The King and Queen drove from Buckingham Palace in the gold state 
coach, which had not been used in many years, followed by five other royal 
carriages containing royalty. 

They entered Parliament House via the Victoria Tower entrance and 
proceeded to the Queen's robing room, where the procession was formed. 
Then the King, with the Queen on his left, led the procession through the 



INSURANCE ON THE LIFE OF THE KING. 305 

great royal gallery, noted for its immense paintings of Waterloo and Tra- 
falgar. 

Hundreds of personages high in society were seated on rising tiers. 
Each side of the way was lined with Yeoman of the Guard. 

The King wore the robes of state and all the Peers scarlet and ermine 
robes. The ladies were in black gowns and all their jewels. The King did 
not wear the crown. 

When all had assembled the King rose and read his own speech from the 
throne, opening Parliament. 

INSURANCE ON THE LIFE OF THE KING. 

Shortly after the King's accession a firm published an advertisement in 
the Times advising immediate application for insurance on the part of 
"traders and others whose business would suffer loss in the event of the 
death of the King, as the insurance companies are rapidly approaching the 
limit of the risk they will accept." 

Many inquiries were made of the great insurance companies about terms, 
but not much business resulted. Though after she had passed her eighty- 
first birthday the premium on Queen Victoria's life was only ii per cent, 
the premium on the King was 8^ per cent, the normal rate for persons seven 
years older than the King. 

But in addition there is the fact that the companies were unable to 
safeguard themselves with a prior medical examination. Many offices 
which did not take risks on any single life beyond a few thousand pounds 
were full, while those with leases which end upon the death of the King had 
already secured all the available policies before the King's accession. 

VICTORIAN COINS NOT RARE. 

A peculiar impression spread among the public in regard to the coins 
issued in 1901 as being of special value, being the last struck with Victoria's 
effigy. 

Jewelers and coin dealers encouraged and stimulated this idea, and sold 



306 HOW KING EDWARD BECAME LOST IN ILLINOIS. 

hundreds of sets of bronze coins, the penny, halfpenny, twopence, and the 
farthing. But the bottom soon fell out of the market, for the people dis- 
covered that the mint had already issued over 4,000,000 pennies of 1901, 
and probably 8,000,000 more were issued before new dies were adopted. 
The gold and silver coins of 1901 had not yet been issued. 

They had a somewhat enhanced value, but collectors remembered that 
British institutions did not know the meaning of the word hurry. 

No Victorian pennies were put in circulation until 1841, and no other 
Victorian coins till 1848. 

HOW KING EDWARD BECAME LOST IN ILLINOIS. 

Some interesting anecdotes are told of Edward VII. who, when less 
than twenty years of age, visited the then western part of the United States 
on a hunting trip. 

It was in the fall of i860, and the Prince, with a party of St. Louis 
friends, invaded the State of Illinois for the purpose of shooting prairie 
chickens. 

The Prince made it a point to be delighted with everything he saw, and 
was in a particularly pleasant mood when he set out upon his novel hunting 
expedition. 

It was a beautiful day in autumn, and, after rehearsing carefully the 
points given him as to the methods employed in this particular kind of hunt, 
to which he was a novice, the Prince entered the field with a true sports- 
man's enthusiasm. 

His success in bagging the game quite carried him away, figuratively 
and also literally, for he was soon lost from both his friends and attendants, 
in a country totally unknown to him. 

When he finally realized the fact he attempted to retrace his steps, but 
even his servant who carried the game for him was nowhere to be seen. 

Striking out, he determined to reach some sort of habitation as quickly 
as possible, in order that he might reach Breese, Clinton county, the party's 
headquarters, before dark. 

This was a much more tiresome venture than hunting prairie chickens, 



HOIV KING EDWARD BECAME LOST IN ILLINOIS. 307 

and he was quite worn out when he came upon a Scotch-Irishman named 
Casey plowing in a field. 

The Prince approached him and asked that he hitch his horses to the 
near-by wagon and drive him to Breese. 

The man stopped short, quietly took a quid of tobacco from his mouth, 
depositing it on the ground, and, taking another chew, stared in amazement. 
"What is the matter, my good man?" said the Prince, "It is not so far 
to Breese that your horses could not make the trip, is it?" 

"Faith, an' nary o' that, sor, but it's no business I have got in Breese 
the day." 

"But, man, it is very important that I should be there without delay, as 
I have no desire to be out here after nightfall." 

"Faith, an' I am sorry for that, sor," said Casey. 

"Perhaps," said the Prince, much amused, "there is a good reason for 
refusing to do a service for me?" 

"Sure, and that's neither here nor there to me, sor. We are all on the 
same footing in this country, sor. If you want me to take you to Breese 
show your wad." 

Finally, realizing what he meant by "wad," the Prince thrust his hand 
in his pocket and drew out a $5 bill. 

That settled it; the road to Breese was now open. 

On the road the Prince chatted familiarly with his grotesque and original 
friend, passing, as he afterward remarked, one of the most amusing hours 
of his trip through the States. 

The Irishman was delighted and his prejudice against titled heads was 
rapidly diminishing when, as they came in sight of Breese, they met several 
of the party, who, having returned to learn if the Prince had arrived safely, 
had hurriedly set out in quest of him. 

Getting out of the wagon and mounting the horse that was being led 
for him, the Prince turned to his new friend and said : 

"My good man, when you return home just tell your wife that you drove 
the Prince of Wales into Breese." 

"Well, faith and begorra," said Casey, "an' that's a good one." 



308 PRINCESS LOUISE ON A TREASURE HUNT. 

Extending his hand to His Royal Highness, he said, with a grin, "Shake. 
Prince or no Prince, you're the right sort, and if ye ever come into these 
parts ag'in jest drop in. The old woman would be powerful glad to see ye." 

PRINCESS LOUISE ON A TREASURE HUNT. 

The Princess Louise, daughter of Queen Victoria, who married the 
Marquis of Lome, now the Duke of Argyll, engaged, with her husband in 
1900, in a great treasure hunt. 

The Duke discovered , it was said, that the flagship of the great Spanish 
Armada, carrying all the treasure of the expedition, was sunk in 1558 off his 
ancestral estate in Argyllshire. 

A hundred years earlier the Duke of that day started a hunt for the 
treasure and located it, when he learned that if he found it the greater part 
would be taken by the Government. 

The law has since been changed and the Duke began the search for the 
wrecked galleon with its treasure of £600,000. 

The Duke of Argyll is the head of the ancient and illustrious house of 
Campbell which has flourished in Scotland according to records for at least 
a thousand years. 

The Duke rented his home, Inverary Castle, to the maker of a patent 
brand of biscuits and kept only a little house, which had been formerly a sort 
of lodge, for himself. The Duke seemed destined to eke out his existence 
on what small income he had when he one day unearthed among some 
papers of his father a map of a part of Argyll showing the coast and all the 
little lochs and firths which abound along its rocky shores. 

In one of them, Loch Cuan, the paper said, lay the wreck of a huge 
Spanish galleon overflowing with doubloons. 

A further search among his father's papers and a questioning of all the 
old tenants on the estate satisfied him that there was certainly a sunken ship 
in the little harbor, for one of the old retainers told of hearing his father tell 
tales of helping, when a young man, the Duke of that day to discover its 
location. 

The Eighteenth Century Duke saw rosy visions of a fortune when his 



PRINCESS LOUISE ON A TREASURE HUNT. 309 

divers after repeated trials brought assurance that there was certainly a 
vessel in the bay. But before anything was brought up the Duke suddenly 
dropped the project and forbade any of his clan to reveal what he had found 
or the location in which the search had been made. 

The present Duke could not understand his ancestor's sudden aversion 
to money, but another paper in his father's collection threw light upon the 
subject. 

It was a formal notice, bearing the Government stamp, that the author- 
ities had been informed he was searching the wreck for sunken treasure ; that 
under the law of the land the major part of anything found would belong to 
the Crown, and that they were immediately sending officials to inspect the 
result of his work. 

The Duke was furiously angry, for he considered that as the wreck went 
ashore on the coast of his possessions he was entitled to all it contained. 

This, then, was his reason for stopping work, and so loyal to their chiefs 
are the people of that land that although the Government tried to bribe some 
of the Duke's retainers into giving them the secret of the vessel's locality 
they were unsuccessful. 

The Duke was never able to secure a repeal of the lavv^. He refused to 
give up his chart to any one, but kept it carefully preserved until his death. 

The law was still in force when the present Duke and his wife discovered 
that they had a treasure at their very castle door. High influence was 
exerted to have the law changed, and it was done. 

The present law provides that any treasure found upon the shores of a 
man's property shall become his except that the Government shall be 
allowed to select for its museum anything of extraordinary antiquarian 
value. 

This was all the Duke was waiting for, and as soon as Parliament had 
passed the bill he began his plans to search the wreck. The improved diving 
suits of the Twentieth Century and the ability of the divers to stay under 
water and to move about freely, made it possible to do much more than 
when the other Duke examined the treasure a hundred years before. 

The reason why a Spanish galleon with millions of doubloons in her 



310 PRINCESS LOUISE ON A TREASURE HUNT. 

comes to be nestling on the shores of Scotland takes one back to the days 
of good Queen Bess, of Philip of Spain and the Spanish Armada. 

Three hundred and odd years ago, when Philip II. of Spain announced 
that he would add England to his list of subject countries, he equipped the 
most splendid fleet of ships which had ever been gathered together and 
placed them under the command of the Duke of Medina Sidonia, with 
instructions to proceed to England. 

The Spanish force consisted of battleships to sweep from the seas the 
English ships, which, under Drake, Hawkins and others, had ruled the 
waves in the Indies and captured many a homeward bound Spanish ship 
and her ducats, and a tremendous army to carry out his plans when once the 
fleet had made a landing upon the British shores. 

Historians vary as to the exact numbers of the great Armada, but the 
most generally accepted version is that Philip gave Medina Sidonia 130 
ships, with a total tonnage of 75,868 tons, and an armament of 2,431 guns. 

Of sailors and soldiers he had at least 27,000. 

The great array seemed invincible to the Spaniards, accustomed to years 
of success, and it left Spain with flags flying, bells ringing and the absolute 
confidence of placing another country under the yoke of Spain. The 
weather for the first few days was charming and the wind drove the huge 
Armada along at what was in those times great speed. 

At that time Spain led the world in the size of her ships and the extent 
of her commerce. Her largest ships towered many feet above the biggest 
ones of England's infant navy. With their triple tiers of ports, their high 
bows and sterns, and their massive build throughout, they looked great 
castles. 

On one of the biggest of these, the Admiral of Florence, together with 
nearly 500 of his men, was the Duke of Medina Sidonia. 

Unknown to them, however, was the fact that the entire war chest of the 
expedition was in the hold of their ship. Every doubloon to pay the army, 
every doubloon to reward valor, to buy food, to renew their stores, was 
packed away in the Admiral of Florence. 

So they sailed until they reached British waters. 



PROPOSED MEMORIAL TO VICTORIA. 311 

How the English bulldogs in their handy little ships, aided by the 
weather, defeated the Spaniards and sank and scattered their ships, is his- 
tory. 

Fleeing from the English, the Duke of Medina Sidonia, in his great 
treasure ship, the Admiral of Florence, sought to return to Spain by sailing 
around the north of Scotland. 

Misfortune continued to pursue them, for the weather was as bad as it 
had been pleasant on the way to England, and the coldness and high winds 
and storms bewildered the navigators. 

After one wild night, when the dawn broke the watchers on the Admiral 
of Florence found themselves on the rocky coast of Argyll, and there, in 
the storm-tossed inlet of Loch Cuan, the sorely tried ship burst her seams. 
She sank in plain sight of the shore. 

The inhabitants of that part of Scotland at that time were not highly 
civilized, and they killed many of those who succeeded in reaching the shore 
and made slaves of all who survived. 

Whether the Duke of Medina Sidonia died at the hands of some hasty 
Campbell clansman, or whether he sank in the waves trying to reach the 
shore, history fails to say. 

At any rate, he disappeared, and the secret of his treasure almost did so 
with him. 

In later centuries a Duke of Argyll discovered that the Spanish ship 
wrecked on his estate contained the treasure of the Armada, and the knowl- 
edge has remained a precious possession of the family to this day. 

The Duke and Duchess v/ere tremendously in earnest over their pro- 
ject, and of the two it was said the Princess Louise was the more zealous. 

PROPOSED SCOTTISH MEMORIAL TO VICTORIA. 

In a speech at Edinburgh, a few days after Queen Victoria's burial. Lord 
Rosebery proposed that the Scottish memorial to Victoria take the form 
of the restoration of Linlithgow Palace, the most historic ruin in Scotland. 

Linlithgow, the birthplace of Mary Stuart and the home of traditions 
and ghosts, had its beginning in 1300, when Edward I. of England on one 



312 CROWN PRINCE AND ENGLISH PRINCESS. 

of his campaigns in Scotland erected a fortified camp on the site of the 
castle. 

The English occupied the fortification until 1307, when a Scotch peasant 
of the name of Binnoch and seven followers of Bruce secured entrance by 
hiding themselves in a load of hay which was allowed to pass uninspected 
into the castle. 

They captured the place and were rewarded by Bruce with rich lands. 

In the reign of Edward III. the castle was again in the hands of the 
English, and in 1424 it was partly destroyed by fire. After the accession 
of the Stuart family Linlithgow became a fixed royal residence, and the 
Scottish Kings were wont to deed it to their consorts. 

James IV. and his immediate successors improved and enlarged the 
castle, and with them it was the favorite residence. The degeneration 
began in 1746, when the castle was abandoned to the use of soldiers as a 
barrack and was accidentally set on fire. 

The old ruin is all of polished stone and covers an acre of ground. Many 
fine examples of sculpture and decorations are in a fair state of preserva- 
tion, and a pile in the center of the inner court is still distinguishable as a 
fountain. 

The parliament chamber in which Mary Stuart first saw the light of day 
on December 8th, 1542, is an object of much interest to tourists. 

ROMANCE OF THE GERMAN CROWN PRINCE AND AN 
ENGLISH PRINCESS. 

One of the most interesting incidents of the period immediately follow- 
ino- the accession of King Edward VII. was the tale of the romantic attach- 
ment between the Crown Prince of Germany and Princess Margaret of 
Connaught, niece of King Edward. The young people were, therefore, 
cousins. 

The story is told in the following cablegram from Berlin, capital city of 
the mighty German Empire : 

"Berlin, February 9, 1901. — The most talked-of personage next to the 
Kaiser in the Fatherland just now is Frederick WilHam, the German Crown 
Prince. 



CROWN PRINCE AND ENGLISH PRINCESS. 313 

"Just before he went to London to attend the funeral of his great- 
grandmother, Queen Victoria, he shot a lot of game in the forests and 
mountains of Upper Bavaria and his fame as a hunter spread far and wide. 
"If there is anything the Germans Hke in their rulers or future rulers 
it is their prowess as sportsmen. The present Kaiser has a versatile char- 
acter, but though he hunts occasionally it is well known that he takes little 
interest in this diversion. 

"His propensities run in the direction of diplomacy, art, literature, moral 
science and numerous other useful spheres. The future ruler of Germany, 
however, is every inch a soldier and sportsman. 

"From London comes the report that the young Prince knows how to 
capture hearts also. Though no formal announcement has been made, it is 
said by those well informed in Court afifairs that a marriage between the 
German Crown Prince and his father's young cousin, Princess Margaret of 
Connaught, niece of King Edward VII., will result from the Prince's visit 
to England. 

"Princess Margaret is five months older than the Crown Prince, both 
still being in their twentieth year. She is an exceedingly pretty girl and of 
about as willful and vivacious a nature as Queen Wilhelmina of Holland in 
many ways. 

"There has been such an avalanche of betrothal rumors in Court circles 
of late that it is difificult for the average newspaper reader to extricate him- 
self out of the labyrinth on Royal and Imperial intrigues. 

"That there was little foundation to the affair between the Crown 
Prince and Queen Wilhelmina, was exploited by her marriage to Duke 
Henry of Mecklenberg-Schwerin. 

"Nevertheless, there is no doubt that the Kaiser at the time of the 
Queen's visit to Potsdam earnestly desired a matrimonial alliance between 
the Houses of Orange and Hohenzollern. 

"This was due to his ambitious designs on the little country of the 
Dutch, where he could give vent to his pet naval and colonial schemes. 
He cared little whether there was really any love between the young people. 

"But right here the German Empress asserted herself. If there is any- 



314 CROWN PRINCE AND ENGLISH PRINCESS. 

thing in the world Her Majesty despises it is a 'marriage de convenience.' 
She often expressed her disapproval in this matter. 

"She noticed at Court that the young Queen was infatuated not with 
her oldest son, but with the robust Duke Henry, and she opposed the match 
with her son with all her might. So the Kaiser had to give in. 

"On the other hand, she knew that her son's heart belonged to the fair 
English cousin, and she resolved that when the Crown Prince would be old 
enough to know himself she would encourage his courtship. 

"If the report of the match proves to be true there is no doubt that it is 
an afifair of the heart, and the Kaiser may now frown upon it no longer. 

"Heaven and earth were moved last fall in Copenhagen to bring about 
a match between the Grand Duke Michael of Russia and Princess Mar- 
garet. The marriage was desired by the royal houses of England, Den- 
mark, Germany, and likewise by the Czar and Czarina. 

"The only obstacle in the way then seemed to be the adoration of the 
young Grand Duke for his cousin, the Grand Duchess Helen, who for his 
sake jilted Prince Max of Baden and rejected Prince Louis Bonaparte, as 
well as offers of marriage from Prince Ferdinand of Bulgaria and King 
Alexander of Servia. 

"The Czar, aside from his personal objections to his brother's marrying 
the Grand Duchess Helen, whom he dislikes, found it impossible to give his 
approval to the betrothal on religious grounds, the orthodox church, of 
which he is both the temporal and spiritual head, strictly prohibiting mar- 
riages between first cousins. 

"On the other hand, Princess Margaret secretly loved the German 
Crown Prince and revolted against the plan of royalty to be forced for 
political and dynastic purposes on a Prince who not only did not profess to 
love her, but who was deeply infatuated with another girl. 

"As soon as the German Crown Prince will have secured the girl of his 
heart, he is expected to return to his favorite haunts in Upper Bavaria, 
where many a chamois will be laid low by his sure aim. 

"He is the bosom friend of Duke Ludwig Wilhelm, oldest son of Duke 
Karl Theodor, with whom he spends at least three months each year hunt- 
ing." 




O 

Q 



< 



o 



> 
W 

Pi 

P!5 

W 

w 

W 
H 

O 

o 

w 

H 
t/) 

u 



CHAPTER XVIIl. 

Buckingham Palace, in London, the Headquarters of the New Sovereign and the 
Scene of Courtly Splendor — ftueen Victoria's Dislike for the Place — ^Would 
Not Reside There, Although She Added to It in an Architectural Way and 
Handsomely Embellished It — History of the Structure — Not an ITgiy Build- 
ing, as So Many Have Asserted — ^Marlborough House, According to Humor, 
to Pass Again to Its Former Owners — A Eemarkhble Dispute — Heirs to the 
English Throne — Libraries. 

QUEEN VICTORIA so disliked Buckingham Palace, the London 
royal residence, that, during the last four decades of her life she did 
not occupy it more than about two nights in the year, while all that 
those admitted to Drawing-rooms, to Court concerts, and Court balls were 
allowed to see were the State apartments. 

The interior of Buckingham Palace was terra incognita, not only to 
tourists of every class but likewise to all, save a few English people, as well. 

Popular ignorance on the subject had been rather augmented than 
diminished by the fact that most of the information which appeared about 
the palace in print was hoplessly wrong. 

King Edward, as soon as he was seated upon the throne, began arrange- 
ments for making Buckingham Palace the Royal and Imperial London 
residence, and it was said that he would sell his house in London — Marl- 
borough House — ^where he had lived all the time he was Prince of Wales, 
to the Duke of Marlborough. 

One of the latter's predecessors had sold it many years previous, and it 
was devoted to the use of the heir to the throne. 

It is from Buckingham Palace that most of the Royal and Imperial 
decrees and proclamations will emanate. 

This Royal abode remained virtually closed after the death of the Prince 
Consort in 1861, people never seeing it otherwise than with all shades 
lowered over the windows, conveying an impression of emptiness and deso- 
lation. 

The public is admitted to view Windsor Castle during the absence of 
the Court, and have accurate knowledge of that residence of the monarch, 

317 



318 BUCKINGHAM PALACE. 

but for some mysterious reason Buckingham Palace was never opened for 
public inspection. 

It was even impossible to obtain permission for private individuals or 
sm.all parties highly recommended to view it. 

It is literally crowded from cellar to garret with priceless art treasures 
of every kind and with quantities of superb paintings. 

If it could be said that Buckingham Palace was built by anybody, it was 
by Queen Victoria and her husband, who were mainly responsible for the 
palace as it now exists. 

It is a stately and magnificent abode, flanked on one side by the beauti- 
ful Green Park, and looking out onto the even still more picturesque St. 
James' Park and the Birdcage Walk. ~~~ 

It is altogether wrong to describe it as the "ugliest royal palace in 
Europe." Its reputation as such dates back to the reign of George IV., 
when its condition certainly deserved it. 

But in 1 901 it was a thoroughly regal abode, far more imposing than most 
of the royal palaces on the Continent. It is an abode of which King Edward 
has no reason to feel in any way ashamed when he welcomes there foreign 
sovereigns and potentates. 

It was not until Queen Victoria succeeded to the throne that it really 
became once more a royal residence. 

The young Queen did not propose to remain under her mother's wing at 
Kensington Palace, where her childhood had been spent. 

She shuddered at the thought of living in dingy old St. James' Palace, 
haunted by the memory of so many sanguinary tragedies, and which had 
originally been a home for unfortunates. So' she decided to make King 
George IV. 's unfinished palace her town residence. 

Before many months were passed it had been rendered habitable and fur- 
nished, and the young Queen took up her abode there. 

At that time it was a relatively low building, with a front and two wings 
round three sides of a court yard. 

In 1848 Queen Victoria added another story to the palace, built the east 
wing-, and also the private chapel. 



BUCKINGHAM PALACE. 319 

Further alterations were made in 1851 at the time of the great Interna- 
tional Exhibition, when the marble arch at the entrance erected by King 
George IV. was removed and placed at the Oxford street entrance to Hyde 
Park, where it is now. 

During the time of the Crimean War, four years afterward, the Queen 
added the magnificent State ballroom. The rear of the palace opens out on 
to most beautiful grounds, laid out by that most skilled of landscape gardeners, 
the Prince Consort. 

These grounds, with their lofty, centuries-old trees, their winding drives 
and walks, and large lake, convey the impression of being at least six times 
as big as they really are, although they extend over a mile and a half in length 
and are three-quarters of a mile wide. 

Buckingham Palace stands on the site which, in the reign of King Charles 
I., was occupied by a large number of mulberry trees, planted by his father, 
and which under his reign had become a place of fashionable resort. 

It was there that Dryden, the poet, was wont, according to his own 
account, to come and eat mulberry tarts. 

During the restoration a sort of chateau was erected on it, first known as 
Goring House and then as Arlington House, and it was there that its owner, 
Lord Arlington, brewed the first tea ever imported into England and which 
he had obtained with the utmost difficulty in Holland at a cost of a sum equiv- 
alent to $20 a pound. 

This was in the year of the great plague. In 1703 John Sheffield, Duke of 
Buckingham, purchased Arlington House, demolished it, and erected on the 
site a mansion known as Buckingham House, and during the reign of Queen 
Anne it was the scene of many gay revels. 

The Duchess of Buckingham, who was a natural daughter of King James 
II., made Buckingham House the center of many Jacobite intrigues against 
King George I. 

After a brief tenure of Buckingham House by Charles Herbert Sheffield, 
a son of the Duke of Buckingham, it was purchased by King George III. for 
the sum of $150,000 a few years after his marriage and settled upon his con- 
sort as her special property, being known as the Queen's House. 



320 THERE IS ALWAYS THE SAME DISPUTE. 

The royal couple entered upon possession of their new abode, then a com- 
modious red brick house, in 1763, and it was there that all their children were 
bom with the exception of their eldest son, 

St. James' Palace, which the King as well as the Queen abominated, was 
only retained for State functions. 

The life of King George and Queen Charlotte was homely and domestic 
in the extreme at Buckingham House, and contemporary memoirs wax elo- 
quent on the spankings administered to the royal children by the King and 
Queen, who were great believers in corporal punishment. 

It was at Buckingham House that the memorable interview between King 
George HI. and Dr. Johnson, the brightest literary light of that era, took 
place. 

At the time George IV. came to the throne Buckingham Palace was in a 
sadly dilapidated condition. 

Owing to the difficulty of obtaining supplies from Parliament for the con- 
struction of a new palace, which he originally intended to build as a metro- 
politan residence suitable for his sovereign rank, he contented himself with 
asking the Legislature for money for the enlargement and repair of Bucking- 
ham House. 

King George's "repairs," however, were of an elaborate character, carried 
out under the direction of Nash, the architect. 

Columns of Carrara marble arrived by the hundreds, and in course of time 
the repairs had swallowed up a sum of $4,000,000, the palace remaining un- 
finished at the King's death. 

The original red brick building was entirely lost in a web of new build- 
ings of stone and marble. 

In its unfinished condition "the King's palace of Pimlico," as it was then 
called, became a source of ridicule to every one. 

King William IV. would have nothing to do- with it. 

THERE IS ALWAYS THE SAME DISPUTE. 

It is rather remarkable that each British reign should be inaugurated by 
something akin to a dispute between the government and the Lord Mayor 
of London. 



THERE IS ALWAYS THE SAME DISPUTE, 321 

The contention arises from the claim of London's Chief Magistrate to be 
present at the first meeting of the Privy Council held by the new sovereign. 

By virtue of ancient usage the Lord Mayor and the Aldermen of the City 
of London are invited to meet the members of the Privy Council at the time 
of the accession of the sovereign, in order to assist in the proclamation of the 
new monarch as King and in order to affix their signatures to the proclama- 
tion. 

The sovereign is not present at this ceremony, but waits in an adjoining 
room, and it is only after the task of appending several scores of signatures 
to the proclamation has been completed that the Privy Council is called into 
session by its Lord President, whereupon several of its members are deputed 
to proceed to the adjoining apartments in order to apprise the monarch of his 
proclamation as King and to invite his attendance at the Council. 

Before the new sovereign is summoned or appears upon the scene every 
person not belonging to the Privy Council is bundled out of the council cham- 
ber, and do not get a glimpse of their new ruler, nor witness the administra- 
tion of the constitutional oath to the monarch by the Lord High Chancellor, 
nor participate in the individual oaths of allegiance taken by all present. 

While the Aldermen and the municipal officials of London readily obey the 
orders commanding their withdrawal, the Lord Mayor invariably makes a 
strong protest, insisting that he has a right to remain. 

Upon the occasion of the accession council of Queen Victoria the then 
Lord Mayor returned to the council chamber, after being turned out, and was 
present throughout the entire subsequent proceedings, though he did not 
attempt to approach the Queen for the purpose of offering his allegiance. 

Clerk Charles Greville, of the Council on this occasion, described the action 
of the Lord Mayor in the matter as "unwarranted and undignified" and inti- 
mated that the only reason the civic dignitary escaped detection at the time 
was because that, with the presence of some 200 Privy Councilors crowded 
into a relatively small room, it was almost impossible to see everybody who 
was there. 

The Chief Magistrate of the City of London has always claimed to be a 



322 AS TO HEIRS TO THE THRONE OF ENGLAND. 

member of the Privy Council, ex-officio, and to have as such a traditional 
right to take part in the accession council of every new sovereign. 

This contention is to a certain extent borne out by the fact that the Lord 
Mayor of London is officially addressed as "the Right Honorable," a prefix 
which belongs to members of the Privy Council. 

But, on the other hand, the predicate of "Right Honorable" is likewise 
accorded to all peers of the realm as a matter of courtesy. 

The permanent officials of the Privy Council deny these pretensions on the 
part of the Lord Mayor to be an ex-officio member of the Council. The name 
of the Lord Mayor does not figure on the roster of the Council, and no one 
can be a member thereof ex-officio, since the special oath of office of Privy 
Councilor is essentially a personal one. 

This matter will be settled for all time by King Edward, so that each new 
reign may not be inaugurated by a squabble. 

AS TO HEIRS TO THE THRONE OF ENGLAND. 

In connection with the absurd story, rife at the time of the funeral of 
Queen Victoria, that the Emperor of Germany meant to lay claim to the throne 
of England, the fact, long forgotten, may be noted, that during the first four 
years of her reign the heir presumptive to her crown was her uncle. King 
Ernest of Hanover. 

Further than that, Prince Jerome Napoleon was in the immediate line of 
succession to the English crown as a great-grandson of Frederick, Prince of 
Wales, father of King George III. 

At the time of the death of Princess Charlotte of Wales, daughter of 
King George IV., a Princess whose demise had the effect of subsequently 
bringing Queen Victoria to the throne, the three persons nearest to the Brit- 
ish crown, who were married and who had children, were the King of 
Wurtemberg, his brother Paul, and his sister, Frederica, the latter married to 
the first Napoleon's younger brother, Jerome (whose first wife was Miss 
Patterson of Baltimore). 

At the beginning of Queen Victoria's reign Princess Frederica of Wiirt- 
emberg's son, Jerome Bonaparte, surnamed "Plon Plon," and father of the 



VICTORIA AS A BUSINESS WOMAN. 823 

present Bonapartist pretender Victor and of Prince Louis Bonaparte, the 
Russian cavalry General, stood far nearer tO' the British throne than, for 
instance, the German Emperor, or any of the children of Queen Victoria's 
daughters do to-day. 

Great Britain was once within measurable distance of being ruled by a 
Queen who bore the name of Bonaparte, with a Prince Consort who had an 
American wife, and "Plon Plon" during the early years of his childhood was 
not without brilliant and likely prospects of becoming Prince of Wales. 

The relationship of Princes Victor and Louis Bonaparte to Queen Vic- 
toria, who always treated them as kinsmen, is thus explained. These Princes 
are still in the line of succession, according to their claims, to the British 
throne. 

VICTORIA AS A BUSIN'ESS WOMAN. 

Queen Victoria, not long after her accession, caused an inventory to be 
compiled of the contents of all the royal palaces, with the object of avoiding 
confusion with regard to the disposal of her personal possessions after death. 

The inventory was contained in a species of immense encyclopedia, com- 
prising more than sixty bulky folio volumes. Minute particulars were given 
of the origin, description, and value of every item, and, in most cases, infor- 
mation was completed by photographs of the object. 

The list was constantly growing up to the time oi the Queen's death. 

It was the Prince Consort who first started the idea of keeping this 
inventory, owing to the im.mense amount of Crown property in the shape of 
jewels, plate, art treasures, and bric-a-brac, that had been distributed by 
King George IV., or else which had been deliberately appropriated by mem- 
bers of his entourage, and of that of his successor, William IV., every facility 
being afforded for this through the extraordinary confusion that prevailed in 
every branch of the royal household until the time of Queen Victoria's mar- 
riage. 

At present, every single piece of royal and Crown property is inventoried, 
and it is as difficult to make away with a humble chest of drawers in use by 



324 LIBRARIES OF GREAT BRITAIN. 

one of the footmen as to purloin a priceless piece of sevres porcelain or a 

jeweled snuff box. 

There were two questions in connection with Queen Victoria's will which 
excited no little speculation among people at court. 

It was as to the disposition Queen Victoria made of her private diaries, 
which were kept with the utmost regularity from the time of her accession 
until her last illness, and likewise of an extraordinary collection of scrap 
books kept under careful lock and key in the Royal Library at Windsor 
Castle, and to which no one, not even the members of the royal family, was 
permitted to have access, save by the express permission of the Queen her- 
self. 

These scrap books contain the originals of all the letters addressed to 
Victoria throughout her long reign by her various Premiers and Cabinet 
Ministers, including the autograph summary of the proceedings in the House 
of Commons, w^hich the member of the Cabinet who acts as the leader of the 
House is required to write every night when Parliament is in session for the 
personal information of the sovereign. 

LIBRARIES OF GREAT BRITAIN AND COLONIES. 

Queen Victoria always took the greatest interest in the matter of libraries 
throughout her empire. 

The leading library of Great Britain, and the second in extent and import- 
ance in the world, is in London, the British Museum. It dates from 1753, 
when Parliament purchased, for £20,000, the Sir Hans Sloane collection, and 
afterwards consolidated therewith many other valuable collections. 

It was given the privilege of copyright, by which means, and by frequent 
and fortunate private bequests of books, it grew apace and became a national 
repository, not only oi home-written works, but of the literature and rarities 
of all nations. 

The number of its volumes exceeds 1,650,000. 

London does not contain many public libraries, but there are numerous 
collections of scientific and special works of great value to those pursuing 
certain lines of knowledge. 



LIBRARIES OF GREAT BRITAIN. ^25 

The second largest and most important collection in England is that of 
the Bodleian Library of Oxford, with some 530,000 volumes ; followed by 
that of the University of Cambridge, with some 510,000 volumes. 

Next in extent and importance in Great Britain is the library of the 
Faculty of Advocates, at Edinburgh. It dates from 1682, and contains about 
400,000 volumes. 

The library of Trinity College, Dublin, was founded contemporaneously 
with the Bodleian, and is the most important in Ireland, with 200,000 vol- 
umes. 

There is not a score of libraries in all England's European domain with 
over 100,000 volumes. Only within the nineteenth century the public or 
free library system began to grow in favor. 

Such growth may be said tO' date from as late a period as 1850, when the 
Manchester Free Reference Library was established. It now contains 255,- 
000 volumes. 

Great Britain encouraged libraries among her colonists. At Ottawa, 
Canada, is the library of Parliament. It was founded in 181 5, and grew 
slowly till 1 84 1, when the two libraries of Upper and Lower Canada were 
consolidated. 

It was subsequently destroyed by fire, and in 1855 re-established. Since 
then it has grown rapidly, and at present contains over 150,000 volumes. 

The Laval University library, at Quebec, is the next most extensive in 
Canada, containing over 100,000 volumes. 

The South African Public Library was founded at Cape Town in 181 8, 
and has grown to contain some 50,000 volumes, many of them of great 
importance as bearing on the languages and customs of African peoples. 

In Australia are many libraries of considerable extent, whose volumes are, 
as a rule, free tO' all readers. 

The largest of these is at Melbourne, and is called the Public Library of 
Victoria. It is a collection of considerably over 150,000 books and pam- 
phlets, many of which relate to Australasian themes. 

The Sidney Free Public Library is next to that at Melbourne in impor- 



326 FRANCHISE CLAUSES OF THE REFORM BILL. 

tance. It is said to- contain the largest collection of works special to Australia 
in the world. 

FRANCHISE CLAUSES OF THE REFORM BILL. 

By far the most important measure passed by Parliament during the 
reign of Queen Victoria was the Reform Bill. 

The following are the franchise clauses 3 to 7, as originally introduced to 
the House of Commons : 

3. Every man shall be entitled to be registered as a voter, and, when 
registered, to vote for a member or members to serve in Parliament for a 
borough, who is qualified as follows ; that is to say : 

1. Is of full age, and not subject to any legal incapacity; and 

2. Is on the last day of July in any year and has during the whole of the 
preceding two years been an inhabitant occupier, as owner or tenant, 
of any dwelling house within the borough ; and 

3. Has during the time of such occupation been rated in respect of the 
premises so occupied by him within the borough to all rates (if any) 
made for the relief of the poor in respect of such premises ; and 

4. Has before the twentieth day of July in the same year paid all poor 
rates that have become payable by him in respect of the said premises up 
to the preceding fifth day of January. 

4. Every man shall be entitled to be registered as a voter, and, when 
registered, to vote for a member or members to serve in Parliament for a 
county, who is qualified as follows ; that is to say : 

1. Is of full age, and not subject to any legal incapacity; and 

2. Is on the last day of July in any year and has during the twelve months 
immediately preceding been the occupier, as owner or tenant, of prem- 
ises of any tenure within the county of the rateable value of fifteen 
pounds or upwards ; and 

3. Has during the tenure or occupation been rated in respect to the prem- 
ises so occupied by him to all rates (if any) made for the relief of the 
poor in respect of the said premises ; and 

4. Has before the twentieth day of July in the same year paid all poor 



FRANCHISE CLAUSES OF THE REFORM BILL. 327 

rates that have become payable by him in respect of the said premises 
up to the preceding fifth day of January. 
5. Every man shall be entitled to be registered, and, when registered, to 
vote at the election of a member or members to serve in Parliament for a 
county or borough, who is of full age, and not subject to any legal incapacity, 
and is on the last day of July in any year and has during the year immediately 
preceding been resident in such county or borough, and is possessed of any 
one or more of the qualifications following ; that is to say : 

1. Is, and has been during the period of such residence, a graduate or 
associate in arts of any university O'f the United Kingdom ; or a male 
person who has passed at any senior middle class examination of any 
university of the United Kingdom : 

2. Is, and has been during the period aforesaid, an ordained priest or 
deacon of the Church of England; or 

3. Is, and has been during the period aforesaid, a minister of any other 
religious denomination appointed either alone or with not more than 
one colleague to the charge of any registered chapel or place of wor- 
ship, and is, and has been during such period, officiating as the minis- 
ter thereof; or 

4. Is, and has been during the period aforesaid, a sergeant-at-law or bar- 
rister-at-law in any of the inns of court in England, or a certificated 
pleader or certificated conveyancer; or 

5. Is, and has been during the period aforesaid, a certificated attorney or 
solicitor or proctor in England or Wales ; or 

6. Is, and has been during the period aforesaid, a duly qualified medical 
practitioner registered under the Medical Act, 1858; or 

7. Is, and has been during the period aforesaid, a schoolmaster holding a 
certificate from the committee of Her Majesty's Council on Education: 

Provided that no person shall be entitled to be registered as a voter or to vote 
in respect of any of the qualifications mentioned in this section in more than 

one place. 

6. Every man shall be entitled to be registered, and, when registered, to 
vote at the election of a member or members to serve in Parliament for a 



328 FRANCHISE CLAUSES OF THE REFORM BILL. 

county or borough, who is of full age, and not subject to any legal incapacity, 
and is on the first day of July in any year and has during the two years imme- 
diately preceding been resident in such county or borough, and is possessed of 
any one or more of the qualifications following ; that is to say : 

1. Has on the first day of July in any year, and has had during the two 
years immediately preceding, a balance of not less than fifty pounds 
deposited in some savings bank in his own sole name, and for his own 
use ; or 

2. Holds on the first day of July in any year, and has held during the two 
years immediately preceding, in the books of the governor and com- 
pany of the Bank of England or Ireland in his own sole name and for 
his own use any Parliamentary stocks or funds of the United Kingdom 
to the amount of not less than fifty pounds ; or 

3. Has during the twelve months immediately preceding the fifth day of 
April in any year been charged with a sum of not less than twenty 
shillings in the whole of the year for assessed taxes and income tax, or 
either of such taxes, and has before the twentieth day of July in that 
year paid all such taxes due from him up to the preceding fifth day of 
January : 

Provided, first, that every person entitled to vote in respect of any of the 
qualifications mentioned in this section shall on or before the twentieth day of 
July in each year claim to be registered as a voter ; secondly, that no person 
shall be entitled tO' be registered as a voter or tO' vote in respect of any of the 
qualifications mentioned in this section for more than one place. 

7. A person registered as a voter for a borough by reason of his having 
been charged with and paid the requisite amount of assessed taxes and income 
tax, or either of such taxes, shall not by reason of being so registered lose any 
right to which he may be entitled (if otherwise duly qualified) tO' be registered 
as a voter for the same borough in respect of any franchise involving occupa- 
tion of premises and payment of rates, and when so' registered in respect of 
such double qualification he shall be entitled to give two votes for the mem- 
ber, or (if there be more than one) for each member toi be returned to serve 
in Parliament for the said borough. 



CHAPTER XIX. 

Lord Eosebery, Former Premier of Great Britain, Writes of the Future of England 
in the Way of Trade and Commerce — Reasons Why Wars Should Cease — 
America and Germany as Competitors of English Merchants and Manu- 
facturers — Irresistible Power of Combined Capital — Scientific Training for 
Business Men — England's Commercial Training too Insular, His Lordship 
Thinks — Estimate of Queen Victoria's Character by T. P. O'Connor — Death 
of the Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha a Sad Blow to the Queen. 

LORD ROSEBERY, former Prime Minister of England, wrote a paper 
about two weeks after the death of Queen Victoria, admonishing the 
people of the British Empire to pay less attention to wars and more to 
trade and commerce. 

Said he : 

"England as a nation is passing with some rapidity on a course toward the 
future which cannot be forecast, which cannot be foretold, and which for the 
moment is, I think, hidden in darkness. 

"What are the signs of the times ? Apparently they are simple enough. 

"We see all Europe covered with congeries of armies, every man that can 
be armed is a soldier; millions are spent in warlike experiments — blown into 
the air with no great apparent result; the last gun must be secured at any 
cost, the army be rearmed without any regard to expenditure, everything the 
soldiers can require must be furnished to every nation without the slightest 
delay. 

"This is a grave state of matters, with the armed nations of Europe looking 
at each other across their frontiers, apparently prepared for immediate war- 
fare. 

"These great military preparations, however vast and costly they are, 
heavily as they lay on the wealth and the manhood of nations, are rather in the 
nature of precaution and insurance against war than of preparation for any 
immediate warlike object. 

339 



S30 LORD ROSEBERY'S VIEWS OF THE FUTURE. 

"There are several reasons for this. There is, in the first place, the fact 
that to launch one armed nation against another is an operation of such incal- 
culable importance, bringing about possibly such immeasurable results, that 
any nation hesitates to trust its fortunes to such an operation. 

"But is there not another, more practical reason for hoping that peace 
may after all be preserved by the very fact of the greatness of the armaments 
of the world? 

"Wars have chiefly b^en waged, I suppose, for the acquisition of territory, 
but there is this peculiarity in the condition of the world, that there is scarcely 
any territory to acquire, so carefully have the civilized nations of the world 
demarcated every place, every tract that can be found upon the maps. 

"There is very little now left to divide, except countries which are so 
densely populated that they would return but little benefit to the acquirers, and 
the cost of any province or provinces that might be acquired by war would 
be so incalculably greater than the material value of any such province that 
'it is not worth the while of any nation to go to war for any effort of terri- 
torial acquisition. 

"From these facts I augur that any approaching military crisis may be 
averted — not that there will be no war, not that there is no possibility of war, 
because war is dictated as a rule by passion, and what I have been pointing 
out is the effect of reason. 

"But I do say that, so far as reason can guide a nation in the operation of 
war, war of a military kind is infinitely less probable than it was before. 

"The war I fear is not a military war, but the war of trade, which is 
unmistakably upon us. When I look round me I cannot blind my eyes to the 
fact that so far as we can predict anything of the twentieth century on which 
we have now entered it is that it will be one of acutest international conflict 
in point of trade. 

"We were the first nation in the world — of the modern world — to dis- 
cover that trade was an absolute necessity. 

"For that we were nicknamed a nation of shopkeepers; but now every 
nation wishes to be a nation of shopkeepers, too, and when we look at the 
character of some of these nations, and at the intelligence of their preparations, 



LORD ROSEBERY'S VIEV/S OF THE FUTURE. 331 

we may well feel that it behooA^es us not to fear, but to gird up our loins in 
preparation for what is before us. 

"There are two nations v/hich are obviously our rivals and our opponents 
in this commercial warfare that is to come. 

"It is to America and to Germany that we have to look in the future for 
an acute and increasing competition with regard to our trade. 

"The alertness of the Americans, their incalculable natural resources, their 
acuteness, their enterprise, their vast population, which will in all probability 
within the next twenty years reach 100,000,000, make them very formidable 
competitors with ourselves. 

"And with the Germans, their slow but sure persistency, their scientific 
methods, and their conquering spirit, devoted as these qualities are at this 
moment to preparation for trade warfare, make them also, in my judgment, 
little less redoubtable than the Americans. 

"There is one feature of the American competition which seems to me 
especially formidable. We are daily reminded of the gigantic fortunes which 
are accumulated in America, fortunes to which nothing in this country bears 
any relation whatever, and which in themselves constitute an enormous com- 
mercial force. 

"The Americans, as it appears, are scarcely satisfied with these individual 
fortunes, but use them, by combination in trusts, to make a capital and a 
power which, wielded as it is by one or two minds, is almost irresistible, and 
that, as it seems to me, if concentrated upon Great Britain as an engine in the 
trade warfare is a danger which we cannot afford to disregard. 

"Suppose a trust of many millions, of a few men combined so to compete 
with any trade in this country by underselling all its products, even at a con- 
siderable loss to themselves, and we can see in that what are the possibilities 
of the commercial outcome of the immediate future. 

"A curious feature, if I may say so without Impertinence, in American 
commercial men seems to me to be that, in combination with that great fac- 
ulty for the acquisition of money, there is a complete contempt for money 
except as a means for making more, and for power. 

"These millionaires, of whom we hear so much, are very often men of 



332 LORD ROSEBERY'S VIEWS OF THE FUTURE. 

simple lives, whose simple rule seems to be to make these enormous accumu- 
lations in order to acquire more power, and to roll the snowball larger and 
larger. 

"And in Germany we see in the same accumulation of capital the same 
peaceful preparations which made the Germans rise from the deep troughs of 
the seas into which they fell after their defeat by Napoleon, and which has 
made for them the most puissant army of modern times, and made them the 
foremost military nation in Europe. 

"That energy, that earnestness, that intellect, with a growing and power- 
ful population, devoted with the same concentration of manner to the war of 
commerce as to the war of armies, constitutes a condition which you cannot 
afford to disregard. 

"What is the remedy for this ? What is poor old John Bull to do before 
he is suppressed and defeated by these newer competitors ? 

"That is a question I should like to ask the chambers of commerce. It is 
quite obviously a question which it would be mere impertinence for me, as lay- 
man, to answer. 

"But if I might say a word it would be to echo what has already been 
said by others, and that is — educate. 

"I believe our raw material of men is the best in the world. But I believe 
— as far as I can judge from what I read and not from practical experience in 
life — that our commercial men require educating, training, scientifically from 
the bottom, if I might say so without impertinence, to the top. 

"I believe that is a feeling which has become very common in this country. 

"Now, in what way is this education to be given? I see a great many 
articles now in the papers as to the decline of our trade — have our trade and 
manufacture declined, or have they not? — and several of our leading news- 
papers are devoting articles to this subject, which I read with profit, but as to 
which I do not pretend tO' pronounce a definite judgment. 

"But I think all those articles, whether they be pessimistic or optimistic — 
and they are generally pessimistic — are united on this point of education. 

"Our commercial travelers, we are told, are both insufficient and inade- 
quately equipped with foreign languages. 




CHAIR IN WHICH ENGLISH SOVEREIGNS ARE CROWNED. 





GREAT SEAL OF QUEEN VICTORIA. 



LORD ROSEBERY'S VIEWS OF THE FUTURE. 335 

"There are not enough of them, and they are not quite good enough for 
their work. And there is the same complaint thst our forms and methods of 
advertisement are as inadequate as our commercial travelers. 

"That, I confess, is a charge that I read with some surprise. The whole 
age is an age of advertisement. 

"Authors, actors, statesmen, singers — I do not care to particularize any 
more categories— are all engaged in a great holy war of advertisement, and 
it does seem very hard that we should fall short in doing that for our goods 
which we do so successfully for ourselves. 

"But as regards the question of education, and as regards the education 
more especially of those who are pushing our trades in foreign countries, there 
is a point to which I would venture to direct your attention. 

"Is not our training, such as it is, and insufficient as it is — is it not a little 
toO' insular? 

"Do we sufficiently send young men to learn what is to be learned abroad, 
to get a certain amount of training, and return to this country with the bene- 
fits of that training? 

"That very ancient nation, the Japanese, of whom we have by no means 
yet seen the last, or even the beginning in commercial matters, have long 
practiced this system ; the Germans have long practiced such a system ; and I 
confess I was extremely rejoiced the other day to receive a letter from the 
manager of a great firm to say that they were sending thirty-five young men, 
to whom they gave an allowance sufficient for their maintenance, to St. Peters- 
burg, where they remained for two or three years studying electrical engineer- 
ing. 

"They will come back perfected by this training, and having at any rate 
seen something of the world and of the methods of other nations who have 
been successful in money-making — they will come back and get the best sit- 
uations in the firm's employment. 

"I think we have cause to hope much from the great university which has 
been established in the Midlands, and which, as I believe, may be the pre- 
cursor of many such modern universities, or, at any rate, of older universities 
changed to modern ideas. 



336 LORD ROSEBERY'S VIEWS OF THE FUTURE. 

"And besides that, we have what I think is insufficiently known, a school of 
economic science in London, which has some four hundred students, which 
gives a higher technical training to br.nkers and to men of business, and 
which, though not on sO' large a scale as I could wish it were, is, I believe, 
doing work which even the Germans envy and imitate, and which is, there- 
fore, not unworthy of imitation by ourselves." 

ANALYSIS OF QUEEN VICTORIA'S CHARACTER. 

One of the keenest analysists of character in the United Kingdom, Thomas 
Power O'Connor, M. P., thus summed up the traits, characteristics and vir- 
tues of Queen Victoria in an article written a short time after her death : 

"The outburst of profound grief with which the English people watched by 
the bedside of their dying sovereign is a curious and, indeed, marvelous portent 
in our times. It is not in the least like anything that has happened in other 
periods of even English history — it is not possible in any country or with 
regard to any other sovereign in any nation of Europe. 

"Mourning on a great and gigantic scale for dead monarchs has been 
common enough in the history of m.ankind ; it is possible that in respect of 
vastness of pageantry the ceremonial attending the decease of a King or Queen 
in these times would fall below the pride and pomp of other days. 

"But everybody knows that there can be nothing more insincere amid the 
many insincerities which surround the death of the great than the pageantry 
of a monarch's death and funeral. 

"Men and women read each successive bulletin with regard to the rise 
and fall of hope and chance of life in this wondrous old sovereign of more than 
eighty, as if she were still in the bloom of youth, and as if she were some near 
and dear relative. 

"The march of legions, the forest of flags, the cyclone of the music of woe 
— all these mere outward things are at the command of a half a dozen mon- 
archs that could be named, certainly at the disposal of the Emperor of Ger- 
many and the Czar of Russia; but it is the English Queen alone who could 
command the simple affection and profound personal love of millions of 
human beings, the vast majority of whom had never seen her face. 



QUEEN VICTORIA'S CHARACTER. 337 

"Here, then, is a phenomenon which requires explanation. Its sources are 
many. First, there is the personal character of the Queen. 

"After all, and allowing everything that can be said for individual injus- 
tice and countless drawbacks, the idea of devout, family life, of which the 
Queen has been so strenuous and splendid a type, is a noble, a healthy, and, 
for a country, a momentous ideal — one on which the ever-raging fight between 
advance and decadence largely turns. 

"And the Queen has ever been the embodiment, not merely of great 
domestic virtues, but of virtues to which rightly all that is best in England 
attaches the deepest importance. 

"There has been no wife or mother who was a truer type of the homely 
virtues that have given its strength to England and history and sanctity to the 
English throne. 

"Secondly, the personal character of the Queen has been typical of the 
nation at large in its strong sense of duty, in its wholesome love of work, in 
its stern, constant, almost punctilious attention to business. 

"Averse tO' mere show at all times oi her life — and especially since her 
great sorrow — she has been nevertheless as punctual, as faithful, as unsparing 
of herself in the discharge of the real duties of her office as though she were not 
the greatest lady in the land, but one of the poor girl drudges. 

"In good weather or in bad, in illness and in health, wherever she was, the 
Queen was pursued by the heavy mailbag and by the breathless Queen's 
messenger; and every day scores if not hundreds of communications were 
read and dealt with, attended to as carefully and conscientiously as though — 
I must use the figure again — the Queen were not the greatest lady, but a 
female telegraph clerk. 

"Sometimes this tremendous assiduity in work may have been an embar- 
rassment, and by some statesmen engaged and worried by tremendous cam- 
paigns or movements, it may even have been sometimes not unnaturally 
resented, but, all the same, it was fine, and it was good. 

"Thus it was that everybody in the country, however lowly his or her 
position, felt that the Queen was in a sense one of themselves — just as much 
like them in the great and essential things of life as the poor woman next door 



338 QUEEN VICTORIA'S CHARACTER. 

who was lying in with a new baby, or the other poor woman a Httle lower 
down the street whose child had been stricken down, leaving parents to weep 
over his grave, as the Queen had had to weep over the graves of her best 
beloved ones. 

"And similarly the Queen was, by her own experiences, wonderfully 
helped in the discharge of her great and tremendously difficult duties. There 
was no sorrow or thought of the ordinary lives of her people that she did not 
know. 

"If I were to try to describe her to a foreigner I should say of her that 
she was the best embodiment in mind, character, and conduct of the sober 
middle class, of the tender-hearted, hard-working matronhood of England. 
Lofty though her character and her lineage were, the Queen was English 
middle class in the best sense of these words — middle class, and even middle 
class of the early rather than of the later stages of the great century, most of 
which she lived through. 

'Even in some of the qualities which somewhat fail to appeal to the for- 
eigner the Queen was essentially and truly English. For instance, with all her 
kindness of heart and intense affections, she was not in the least a senti- 
mentalist. Throughout all she wrote and said there is never a trace of any 
of the mawkishness, or the false sentiment, or the morbidness which is char- 
acteristic of the utterances of so many women of our age, even of many 
women who, like the Queen, were occupants of illustrious thrones. 

"And even in a certain sternness of character the Queen was representa- 
tive of the vigor and the stern self-discipline of the nation to which she 
belonged. 

"Take the attitude of the Queen towards her Ministers. Though there 
never was a monarch more constitutional, yet everybody knew that she 
expressed her views to her Ministers freely ; that she had a will of her own ; 
and that keeping strictly within her rights she yet had a way of making her 
own views felt and known. 

"Take her conduct towards her children. There never was a woman more 
considerate and affectionate, and even long-suffering. 

"And yet it is notorious that no child of hers was ever able to take a 



QUEEN VICTORIA'S CHARACTER. 339 

liberty with her ; nay, it was said that even long after they were middle-aged 
some of her children whom she loved the most had to go through some of the 
same formalities as other people who wanted an interview. 

"It will be objected that all the virtues of the Queen which have been set 
forth are, after all, but the common, and average, and pretty universal virtues 
of the women of this land— that the Queen has been only as other women. 

"But this is to lose sight of the essential and fundamental fact that there 
are temptations to such a state as that to which the Queen belongs which none 
but the stoutest natures could resist. 

"Look at her contemporaries. Of the Princes that came to the throne at 
the same time as she did, more than one ended in exile, more than one had to 
fly at some time or other from the vengeance of his people. And every year, 
on the other hand, only strengthened the hold of the Queen on the affections 
of her people. 

"Indeed, it can be said without exaggeration that the institution of royalty 
in England has recorded through the Queen an indefinite prolongation of 
its life, an incalculable increase of its strength. 

"And if it be held that it is an easy matter to be a good Queen, think for a 
moment of what the female sovereigns of other nations in our times have been 
like — of this one, the creature of every wretched adventurer in Europe with a 
pretty face — of that other one, a restless, spectral, haunted ghost, wandering 
through every country of Europe in the vain search of escape from the pursu- 
ing phantoms of madness, sorrow, and despair. 

"Or, think of that other monarch, held responsible by a great part of the 
nation which she once helped to rule for a disaster unparalleled in its horror 
and its devastations. 

"And, return from this gallery of demented, reckless neurotics to this 
sober, steady, even-tempered, strong-nerved woman, who for upwards of sixty 
years passed through every temptation unscathed, with the even tenor of her 
way undisturbed by passion, rage, nerves, bitter personal prejudices — granite 
in firmness, consistency, and in will. 

"For all these reasons the verdict of history will, I believe, confirm the 
estimate of to-day, though it will be written in the frigid impartiality of retro- 



340 DEATH OF DUKE OF SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA. 

spect, and the other is traced by Englishmen on paper blotted with tears, and 
Queen Victoria will be marked out as one of the greatest sovereigns of English 
history." 

DEATH OF THE DUKE OF SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA. 

The sympathy, not only of the English-speaking races, but of the whole 
world, went out to Queen Victoria, who, in the Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 
lost for the third time by death a much-loved child, and one who, notwith- 
standing the fact that he died as sovereign of a minor German State, was for 
many years of his life third in succession to the British throne. 

The second son and fourth child of Prince Albert and of Queen Victoria 
was, at the time of his death, on the eve of celebrating his fifty-sixth birthday. 

He was christened just a month after his birth, in the private chapel of 
Windsor Castle, and among his godfathers and godmothers were the Duke of 
Cambridge and his parents' sister-in-law, the Duchess of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 
who was represented by the Duchess of Kent. 

The baby Prince was given the names of Alfred Ernest Albert, and his 
position as heir-presumptive to the Crown (for until the birth of the Duke of 
Clarence Prince Alfred occupied that position) made his education a matter 
of the deepest importance. 

He seems, however, to have early made up his mind to be a sailor, and 
when he was twelve years old he was provided with a separate establishment, 
and put under the care of Lieutenant (later Sir John) Co well, a young officer 
of Engineers who had distinguished himself in the Crimea, and who at the 
time he became the guide, philosopher and friend of the future sailor-Prince 
was only three-and-twenty. 

In the following year, that is, in 1857, Prince Alfred carried on his naval 
studies at Alverbank, a pretty house situated just opposite the Isle of Wight ; 
and it was while there that he passed with brilliant success his naval examina- 
tion. 

In the Queen's private diary Her Majesty put on record that Prince Alfred 
met her and Prince Albert as they landed at their private pier of( Osborne "in 
his middy's jacket, cap, and dirk, half blushing, and looking very happy." 



DEATH OF DUKE OF SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA. 341 

The fact that his son had solved the mathematical problems almost all 
without a fault, and that he had done the translations set him without a 
dictionary, highly delighted Prince Albert; and soon after the latter and the 
Prince of Wales accompanied the sailor-Prince to Spithead and saw the 
Euryalus start, with him on board, for the Mediterranean station. 

During the years which followed. Prince Alfred was constantly on the sea. 

It was in i860, while serving as a naval cadet on the Euryalus, a screw 
steam-frigate of fifty-one guns, that he paid a memorr^ble visit to South 
Africa, where, accompanied by Sir George Grey, he toured from Cape Town 
to Natal overland, being heartily welcomed wherever he went. 

Sir George Grey, writing to a private friend, observed : "He is a noble 
fellow, full of life and fun." On September 17th of the same year the Prince 
laid the first stone, or, rather, tilted into the sea the first wagon-load of stones, 
which went to form the breakwater in Table Bay. 

The fact that he was absent from his father's death-bed remained to the 
end of his life an abiding sorrow, the more so that during the years that 
succeeded that sad event he was compelled to be frequently absent from the 
Queen; but he showed his deep affection for his native country by refusing 
(in the year 1862) to become King of Greece, although he had been formally 
elected to that important position on the abdication of King Otho. 

Prince Alfred's first independent command was that of the Galatea in 
1867, and he valued his new position in the navy far more than he had done 
his elevation to the Peerage as Duke of Edinburgh, Earl of Ulster, and Earl 
of Kent. 

It was in June of 1866 that he took his seat in the House of Lords, 
on the same day receiving the Freedom of the City of London. 

It is also interesting to note that in that year also he was elected Master 
of Trinity House. 

The Duke was the only one of the Queen's children who ever visited the 
Australian Colonies. It was while he was in New South Wales, in the sprino- 
of 1868, that an Irishman named O'Farrell fired at him with a pistol, wound- 
ing him slightly in the back. 

The Colonial Government, showing a firmness which undoubtedly had 



342 DEATH OF DUKE OF SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA. 

the result of checking this type of outrage in Australia, carried out the death 
sentence on the would-be assassin. 

The Duke, still in command of the Galatea, during the same year visited 
India, China and Japan. 

The Duke of Edinburgh was nine-and-twenty when his engagement to 
the Grand Duchess Marie of Russia was publicly announced. 

Great Britain's sailor-Prince met the only daughter of the then Emperor 
of Russia at the Castle of Jugenheim, near Darmstadt; and there are some 
tender rem.arks concerning the happiness of the young couple in the published 
letters of Princess Alice. 

The wedding of the Duke and Duchess of Edinburgh was celebrated amid 
a scene of extraordinary splendor at St. Petersburg in January of 1874. 

There was a double ceremony, one being according to the rites of the 
Greek Church, and the other according to the rites of the English Church. 
The latter service was celebrated by the Dean of Westminster, Dr. Stanley, 
who had long been on terms of private friendship with the bridegroom. 

After a short honeymoon spent in the wonderful summer palace of 
Tsarskoe Selo, the newly married couple left for England, and on March 12th 
their Royal Highnesses, accompanied by the Queen, made a public entry into 
London. 

Though the Duchess paid frequent visits to her parents, she and the Duke 
spent the first few years of their married life between Clarence House and 
Eastwell Park, although the Duke at no time gave up his active connection 
with the navy — indeed, he commanded the Sultan from 1876 to 1878, the 
following year becoming Admiral-Superintendent of Naval Reserves. 

The Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha often said that the happiest years of his 
life had been those during which his permanent home was at Eastwell Park. 

There he, his clever and cultivated Duchess, and their elder children lived 
much the same kind of existence as that led by the Prince and Princess of 
Wales at Sandringham. 

They were both devoted to their only son and pretty young daughters, 
and when the Duke was given the command of the Mediterranean Fleet the 



DEATH OF DUKE OF SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA. 343 

Duchess and their children spent each winter in Malta, returning during the 
summer months to their beloved Eastwell Park. 

It was in Malta that their second daughter, Princess Victoria Melita, had 
been born in 1876. 

Although the Duke of Edinburgh was for many years known to be heir to 
his uncle, the Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, he continued to lead the busy, 
energetic existence of an Admiral of the British Fleet till the moment came 
for him to take over the duties of sovereignty. 

After being commander of the Mediterranean Fleet he had accepted the 
Devonport command, and he only resigned the latter on the death of his uncle, 
which occurred just seven years before his own. 

On succeeding to the Duchy, the Duke voluntarily gave up the annuity 
of f I5,0CK) a year conferred on him shortly after he came of age; the annuity 
voted oh his marriage^ — that is, £10,000 a year — he retained, together with 
Clarence House, St. James', to which charming royal residence he remained 
deeply attached. 

As was to be expected in his father's son, the Duke took his duties as 
Sovereign very seriously; and nowhere was he more sincerely mourned than 
in Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, for he, the Duchess, and their children greatly 
endeared themselves to the inhabitants of the Duchy, the more so that their 
Sovereign never allowed his love of England to interfere with his duty to 
them. 

At or near Coburg he spent at least ten months out of every year, his 
favorite among many beautiful royal residences being the pretty little Castle 
of Rosenau, where he passed away. 

But his deep love for what remained, after all, "home" to him was shown 
by the significant fact that he desired in his will that his body should be 
brought to Windsor for interment. 

The Duke and Duchess celebrated their silver wedding in the January of 
1899; but the death of their only son, which followed with tragic quickness 
on the silver-wedding festivities, undoubtedly contributed to the Duke's break- 
down in health. 



344 DEATH OF DUKE OF SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA. 

He took, however, a kindly interest in his heir, the young Duke of Albany, 
who succeeded his uncle as reigning Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. 

During his minority the actual government of the Duchy was carried on 
by his guardian, the Hereditary Prince of Hohenlohe-Langenburg. 

The young Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha possessed the unbounded love 
and affection of Queen Victoria, his grandmother, he being the son of Prince 
Leopold, who, never having been robust, was with his royal mother much 
of the time. 

He (Prince Leopold) was created Duke of Albany not long before his 
untimely death, which was caused by a peculiar ailment, from which he had 
suffered for many years. 

The Duke of Edinburgh and Prince Leopold were very intimate, and 
it pleased the former greatly, when dying, to know that the succession to 
the dukedom of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha would fall to his favorite nephew. 



CHAPTER XX. 

What is to be the Future of the Great Empire of India? — The City of Herat, the 
Key to India, Which Has Figured so Prominently in the History of the 
World — The Psychological Moment When an Attack Will be Made by 
Russia Not Known to Either Generals or Statesmen, but it is Sure to 
Come — Herat, the Granary of the Southern Oxus — A Point of the Utmost 
Strategic Importance — The Colossus of the North Watching Herat With 
Hungry, Eager Eyes — Independence of Afghanistan, the Buffer State, 
Guaranteed by England — Great Britain and the Inevitable Conflict for the 
Possession of India — Magnificent and Beneficial Work on the Nile in Egypt 
— Casualties Among British South African Field Force up to End of Jan- 
uary, 1901. 

HERAT, in Afghanistan, is the key to the great Empire of India, and 
the nation which possesses it will maintain a closed door to the designs 
of all the countries which may desire to enter. 

There is probably nO' city which has figured more prominently in the his- 
tory of the world than Herat. It existed under the Empire of Alexander 
and of Tamerlane, and, more recently, passing through the hands of the 
Usbegs, it became the capital of Nadir Shah, and after proving a frequent 
bone of contention between the Persians and Afghans, fell under the perma- 
nent dominion of the latter, and now forms the capital of the westernmost 
province of Abdurrahman Khan. 

Herat has probably stood more sieges than any other city. Its possession 
was made the cause of two wars which this country declared, the one against 
Persia, the other against Afghanistan; and although the city has enjoyed a 
period of freedom from disturbance since the pacification of Yakoob Khan 
in 1 87 1, it is no secret that hungry eyes are more than ever turned towards it. 

It is only till the psychological moment arrives that an attack from the 
direction of the Russian frontier is postponed. 

The reason for the prominence which has been attained by Herat in the 

fortunes of Asia, will be made clear by a reference to the atlas. Apart from 

its geographical situation, the region surrounding the ancient fortress is the 

345 



346 FUTURE OF THE EMPIRE OF INDIA. 

one district in the whole of Afghanistan where the soil repays the labor of 
its tilling, and supplies can be obtained in any quantity. 

From the earliest period of its history Herat has been the granary of the 
Southern Oxus, and hither for many generations have the dwellers of the 
Khanates of Kandahar, of Kabul, of Afghan-Turkestan, and of the people 
on the confines of the neighboring salt desert of Khorassan, flocked to the 
market of the Chahar-Su, from which the necessaries of life are dispensed to 
the remotest parts of the adjoining territories. 

Thus placed, Herat is not only the great market of the Pathan and Turko- 
man tribes, but it is, in virtue of the physical features of the country, the great 
center from which the roads of Southern Central Asia radiate. 

From a strategic point of view, its position is of the utmost importance. 
In a country such as Afghanistan, cut up in every direction by ranges of 
mountains of the first degree, the longest way round is not only frequently 
the shortest, but often the only possible route which offers, and excepting for 
the hardy mountaineer born in the upland valleys of the Hindu Kush, the 
Koh-i-baba or the Safed Koh, there is only one route possible to the average 
traveler besides the Great Trunk Road, which is a road only in name, which 
passes from Kandahar to Herat, and thence to well-nigh every point of the 
compass. From Herat the trader has his choice of routes to Astrabad and 
Teheran, to Mashed and Askabad, to Sarrakhs, to Merv, to Balkh, and to 
Kabul, though the latter leaves much to be desired ; and the vital importance 
of a city which commands so many thoroughfares was recognized centuries 
ago. 

Herat is one of the principal markets of Central Asia as well as a manu- 
facturing center of considerable importance. But the principal interest in 
the place is political rather than commercial, for Herat, besides being the 
gateway to Afghanistan, is also the key to British India. 

It is unnecessary to describe the various routes which lead from Turkestan 
to the Punjaub, but a consideration of the roads available, lead one to the 
inevitable conclusion that there is only one possible route by which Russia 
could dispatch an army of the necessary proportions tO' the British frontier. 

That route is via Herat, Farah, Girishk, and Kandahar, and this fact was 



FUTURE OF THE EMPIRE OF INDIA. 347 

demonstrated in i860 by military experts who knew the country. In those 
days the nearest Russian frontier was many hundreds of miles away, and the 
pledges by Russia made in response to the requests of England were 
accepted as binding her not to approach any nearer. 

The subsequent encroachments made by Russian arms, which gradually 
absorbed Khiva, Bokhara, Khokand, and the country of the Tekke Turko- 
mans, served periodically to draw attention to the Afghan frontier question, 
and the importance of the possession of Herat was demonstrated in turn by 
well-nigh every military expert who visited the East. 

Sir Charles MacGregor, Sir Henry Rawlinson, Colonel Malleson, 
Arminius Vambery, Charles Marvin — to name only a few — in vain lifted 
their voices in the hope of impressing on England the vital necessity of saving 
Herat from Russia. 

On two separate occasions have Viceroys of India given pledges to Ameers 
of Afghanistan that any attempt on the part of Russia to seize or occupy 
Herat would be resisted with all the might of Britain, and yet Herat remains 
as unprotected and as far beyond the influence of British rule as was the case 
in 1838, when the city, besieged by a Persian army led by Russian generals, 
was released by the efforts of a single British officer, Eldred Pottinger. 

In one respect, however, the situation had been revolutionized by 1901. 
In 1838 Russia's furthest outpost lay eight hundred miles north of Herat, 
about the same distance as was the British frontier southeast. In 1900 a 
Russian fort stood sixty miles from Herat, while the nearest British outpost 
was five hundred and thirty miles away. 

Thus could Russia place an army of occupation in the ancient city in a 
couple of forced marches, while it would take at least a month for a British 
regiment to reach the mud walls. 

In this relation the latest Russian action is eloque^it. It was announced 
early in the year 1900 that a detachment of Russian troops had been sent 
from the Caucasus to Kushk Post, arriving there on the ist of January of 
that year, the object of the operation being, in the words of the Russian 
Minister of War, to test the capacity of the new frontier branch of the Cen- 
tral Asiatic Railway in regard to the mobilization of troops upon the Afghan 



348 FUTURE OF THE EMPIRE OF INDIA. 

frontier at any time when the condition of that country called for inter- 
ference. 

Without attempting to discuss the right of Russia to interfere in Afghan 
affairs so long as the Pathans abstain from causing trouble on the Russian 
side of their frontier, tO' say nothing of the treaty rights of Great Britain in 
this connection, this latest move of Russia, in the opinion of many of the 
ablest statesmen and observers in England, should serve as a timely reminder 
of approaching events. 

Lord Salisbury's Government was urged to make up its mind as tO' the 
policy it would pursue should Russia enter Afghanistan and seize its most 
precious possession. 

Turning from its political to its local aspect, Herat is a very typical Asiatic 
stronghold. Four-sided in form, the city is surrounded by mud walls, each 
side measuring rather less than a mile in length. 

In general appearance Herat and Kandahar are very similar, and it is 
believed that Shah Abdali took the former as his model when he founded 
the latter in 1750. 

There are five gates in the walls, from each of which runs a broad street 
to the Chahar-Su, or cross roads, which forms the center of the city. The 
streets are generally crowded with Asiatic traders who come from all parts, 
and Herat is probably visited by a greater variety of peoples than any other 
city excepting Kashgar. 

The inhabitants, who number over 100,000, are mostly Afghans, Turko- 
mans, Bokhariots, Hazaras, Persians, Hindus, and Jews, with a liberal sprink- 
ling of Tajiks, Sarts, and Armenians. 

Each of the five gates is flanked by bastions, and the entire wall is sur- 
rounded by a moat, which is bridged outside each gate by a wooden draw- 
bridge worked from within the walls. 

These walls are over thirty feet high, and are built on an embankment 
of earth of about the same altitude. This latter is furnished with lines of 
shelter-trenches, from which the city can be defended against the attack of 
Asiatics. 

The Ark-i-nau, or new citadel, lies in the northwest quarter of the city, 



FUTURE OF THE EMPIRE OF INDIA, 349 

and, according- to most recent reports, is garrisoned (1901) by four cavalry 
and five infantry regiments, while thirty-five cannon of antiquated form are 
placed on the ramparts. 

All officers who have visited Herat agree that the city would fall in a very 
few hours after modern gnns were brought to bear, and it would be absurd to 
credit the place with the power of resisting any serious attack by a civilized 
foe. 

On the other hand, held by trained soldiers provided with modern weapons, 
the place would probably be impregnable to any native attack. 

The fertility of the surrounding country, and the abundance of water pro- 
vided by the Heri Rud and its tributaries, would also tend to strengthen the 
'hands of the defenders. 

There is probably no question so misunderstobd as that involved in the 
fate of Herat, quite apart from the pledges which have been given by British 
Governments guaranteeing the independence of Afghanistan against Russian 
designs. 

Great Britain is committed, within the knowledge of every Pathan, to 
save this country from the Muscovite. 

But for this understanding British influence would never have been 
allowed to dominate the Afghan frontiers, or British counsels to affect Abdur- 
rahman Khan. 

For reasons clearly evident, it is hardly longer possible for England to 
abide by these pledges. As soon as Russia moves it will be too late to attempt 
to dispute the custody of Herat. 

If Britain attempts tO' anticipate her intentions and move troops from 
Quetta, Russia could defeat that object by swooping down upon the strong- 
hold in dispute. 

The suggestion that England occupy Kabul and Kandahar is not prac- 
ticable. Kandahar could be invested with the greatest ease, it is true, and 
would probably be held successfully against all comers; but to do so would 
not save Herat or British prestige, and, after being on the border for so. long, 
on the express understanding that the British guaranteed the integrity of the 
Ameer's dominions, they should, on failing to redeem their pledges, more 



350 COMPLETION OF GREAT WORK IN EGYPT. 

likely than not find the Pathans in arms and have to retire before a combina- 
tion of the Russo-Afghan forces. 

Kabul could be held by a couple of army corps located on the heights by 
which the city is surrounded. The walls could not be held without this, inas- 
much as the city is entirely dominated from all sides. 

But England will hold India, in spite of the fact that it is not possible to 
create an effective frontier in Afghanistan. 

England has (1901) over two hundred thousand of her finest troops in 
South Africa, and there would be no delay in sending them to India should 
occasion require. 

But, for that matter, Great Britain proposes to hold both her South 
African and Indian possessions. 

COMPLETION OF GREAT WORK IN EGYPT. 

The mighty dam across the Nile at Assouan, in Egypt, was completed in 
the early part of 1901. 

Sir John Aird, the builder, walked across. He was the first man ever to 
cross the Nile dry-footed. 

It is difficult even to estimate the value of the improvement to Egypt. Up 
to the time of the completion of the dam practically one-third of the country 
remained undeveloped for want of water. The other two-thirds were depend- 
ent on the regular overflow of the Nile. 

When this had not occurred agricultural enterprise was paralyzed. It is 
roughly estimated that 4,130,000 acres secured regular irrigation. 

By throwing up a barrage a mile and a quarter in length across the Nile 
at a spot five hundred miles below Cairo, a reservoir one hundred and eleven 
miles long with a storage capacity of a billion cubic meters was constructed. 

The dam is a single straight wall founded everywhere on granite rock, 
with a width of twenty-three feet at the top, eighty feet four inches at the 
bottom. A series of sluices were arranged through which the water is dis- 
charged according to the necessities of the season. 

It was first contemplated that the Temple of Philae be flooded for several 
months each year, but this idea met with such violent opposition from 




WESTMINSTER ABBEY. 




THE HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT. 




FAMILY GATHERING OF EUROPEAN ROYALTY. 



CASUALTIES CONSEQUENT UPON BOER WAR. 353 

archaeologists and others that the EngHsh Government was obHged to give 
v^ay and reduce the height of the water surface. 

Whether this will ultimately save the temple remains to be seen. The 
modification of the original plan considerably reduced the storage capacity 
oif the reservoir. As it is, the water comes to the level of the floors of the 
Temple of Isis. 

Pharaoh's bed, a beautiful pavilion built for Augustus, will gradually 
crumble, as it is mainly built on a terrace of Nile mud. 

Thick slime will engulf the lovely colonnades of Nectanebo, the Nilometer 
steps, and the ancient registers of the Nile's rising will be under water. 

The lovely little temple of Hathor will be drowned out and the Roman 
arch of Diocletian's time will no more be seen. 

The sculptured rock of Konosio, with its stories of 4,000 years ago, can 
only be viewed from a boat. 

But Egypt has been the gainer. There are many temples left in other 
parts of Egypt for the archaeologists. 

CASUALTIES CONSEQUENT UPON BOER WAR. 

After three weeks of regal mournings and pageants the British public's 
eyes were again riveted upon the situation in South Africa. The Official 
Gazette, at London, on the morning of February 9th, published one hundred 
and fifty closely printed pages of Lord Roberts' reports on the war, and it 
made rather melancholy reading. 

It illustrated the magnitude of the task which confronted the British 
administration. 

It proved the splendid tenacity and bravery of the British soldier also. 

The report of Lord Roberts showed the great loss of British life in the 
Transvaal — 12,989 dead, of whom 7,793 perished from disease — caused a 
most profound sensation in London and was the absorbing subject of discus- 
sion everywhere. 

What most impressed the public was that the losses continued to be as 
great as ever. 



354 CASUALTIES CGNSEQUENT UPON BOER WAR. 

Official returns showed that the casualties in the English field force in 
South Africa, up tO' the latest date covered in the Imperial War Office reports, 
January 31st, 1901, were as follows: 

Petty officers 

Officers. and men. 

Killed in action in various engagements 335 3'359 

Died of v/ounds received in battle 104 1,087 

Prisoners wdiO' have died in captivity 7 99 

Died of disease 211 7,582 

Accidental deaths 5 2°° 

Total deaths in South Africa 662 12,327 

Missing and prisoners (excluding those who have been 

recovered or have died in captivity) 7 898 

Sent home as invalids 1,638 36,986 

2,307 53'2ii 

Total loss to South African field force 55-5 ^^ 

Colonial troops invalided home 4,000 

Under treatment in hospitals in Africa i5'000 

Casualties among pro-British civilians 2,000 

Killed and wounded since above figures were compiled i ,000 



Total casualties to January 31st, 1901 77>5i8 

Among other stories circulated at this time was that General Sir Evelyn 
Wood was being sent to South Africa on a mission which meant, so it was 
said, a recognition of the Boer Governments as treaty making powers and 
the presentation in a manner not calculated to offend Boer pride of the best 
terms that England was willing tO' give. 

These were the organizations of the South African Republic and the 
Orange Free State as separate, self-governed colonies with all the rights 
enjoyed by the people of Cape Colony and free from military occupation, 
except small garrisons at Pretoria and Bloomfontein. 

There was to be, so it was asserted, complete amnesty for the past, all 
property to be restored to its owners, the Imperial Government reserving the 
right of levying special taxes on mining properties to meet expenses incurred 
in the war. 



BLOODY ENGAGEMENTS WITH BOERS. 355 

These were said to be the very farthest concessions that England was will- 
ing to make to bring the conflict to a close. 

King Edward was said to have used his personal influence to bring about 
this spirit on part of the Cabinet, and it was intimated that the last words 
of Queen Victoria to her successor had a bearing in this direction. 

No surprise was created, however, when, on February loth, 1901, Lord 
Raglan, Under Secretary of State for War, said that General Sir Evelyn 
Wood was not going to South Africa, and that no peace commission was 
contemplated. 

"The report as to a peace commission is false from beginning to end," he 
said. "The policy of the government is the opposite of what would prompt 
such a step. Troops, not peace commissioners, are going to South Africa." 

Sir Evelyn Wood was less likely than any other high officer to be chosen 
for important special duties, as he was so deaf his retirement was only a 
question of a short time. 

BLOODY ENGAGEMENTS WITH THE BOERS. 

This same day, February loth, England heard of two bitterly contested 
engagements between British and Boers in South Africa. General Kitchener 
reported a fight between Smith-Dorrien and Louis Botha's troops near Ermelo, 
in which the Boer General Spruit was killed. General Randemeyer wounded, 
and two field cornets and twenty Boers killed. 

The British casualties were twenty-four killed and fifty-three wounded. 

The other engagement was reported from East London, Cape Colony, 
where details of the fight at Tabaksberg Mountain on January 31st were 
received. 

Major Crewe with a composite column of 700 became engaged with about 
2,500 Boers under personal command of General De Wet. Major Crewe lost 
a "pom-pom" gun and many men. 

General Lord Kitchener's dispatch said: 

"Pretoria, February 9. — The columns working eastward occupied 
Ermelo on February 6th with slight opposition. A large force of Boers, 
estimated at 7,000, under Louis Botha, retired eastward. 



35G BLOODY ENGAGEMENTS WITH BOERS, 

"About 300 wagons with families passed through Ermelo on the way to 
Amsterdam, and large quantities of stock are being driven east. 

"A peace delegate under sentence of death and other Boer prisoners were 
taken away by the Boers. All the reports show that the Boers are exceedingly 
bitter. Fifty Boers surrendered. 

"Louis Botha, with 2,000 men, attacked General Smith-Dorrien at Camp 
Bothwell at three a. m. on February 6th. He was repulsed after severe fight- 
ing. 

"General Spruit was killed, General Randemeyer was severely wounded, 
two field coiTiets were killed, twenty of the Boer dead were left in our hands, 
and many severely wounded. 

"Our casualties were twenty-four killed and fifty-three wounded. 

"Our movement to the east is reported to^ have thoroughly upset all the 
enemy's calculations and created a regular panic in the district. 

"Christian De Wet appears to be crossing the line south of Jagersfontein 
road to the west this morning, having failed to effect a crossing by the drifts 
east of Bethulie. 

"In Cape Colony Calvinia has been occupied by Colonel De Lisle, who 
entered on February 6th, the enemy retiring toward Kenhardt. Colonel Haig 
is driving the midland com.mandos northward past Aberdeen." 

The idea of England giving up what she had fought so bravely for in 
South Africa was certainly ridiculous. 



CHAPTER XXI. 

Victoria a Woman of Numberless Sorrows, Bereavements, Burdens and Cares — 
Her Strength of Character Shown by Her Ability to Bear Them Without 
Being Crushed Under Their Awful Weight — Princess Alice Her Greatest 
Comforter at the Time of the Death of the Prince Consort — The Princess 
Royal and Her Husband, the Latter Victoria's Pride — Christmas Gifts 
for Her Troops in the Field. 

N TRUTH it may be said that Queen Victoria was a woman of not only 

many years but many sorrows. When experiencing the latter the pomp 

and magnificence of royal and imperial state counted for nothing, having 
no weight in the balance whatever. 

She was fortunate, however^^ in that during the earlier years of her reign 
she suffered few pangs of grief. In 1861 she was bowed down by a double 
loss — the deaths of her husband and her mother. 

Queen Victoria owed much to both, and acknowledged it many times. 
The Prince Consort was an able man, his judgment being sound and his 
ideas broad ; generous by nature, he was a humanitarian of the most thorough 
sort. 

It was only after Prince Albert's death that he received the appreciation 
which his singularly perfect character deserved. This appreciation he had 
received from all who' came in contact with him in his lifetime; but by the 
mass of the people who were not near enough to fall under his personal 
influence, he was not sufficiently known tO' be beloved. 

Perhaps, if truth were told, he was too uniformly noble, too high above all 
soil and fault, to win the fickle popular admiration, which is more caught by 
picturesque irregularity than by the higher perfections of a wholly worthy life. 

But after his death, and chiefly since the Queen's own generous and 
tender impulse prompted her to make the country the confidant of her great 
love and happiness, the Prince Consort had full justice. The record of their 
mutual life has interwoven the happiest and purest hours of existence with 
the national history. 

357 



358 MARRIAGE Of PRINCESS ALICE. 

The one reproach raised against Her Majesty was that in her sorrow she 
fell out of the practice of that intercourse with her people in which the country 
delighted. England grudged her seclusion, her mourning, the true and pro- 
found grief of her widowhood; although, at the same time, with very natural 
and thoroughly English perversity, the country was proud of the faithful 
sorrow which would not be comforted. 

More and more, however, as it was known what the Prince had been to 
the Queen, the overwhelming grief of her widowhood was better understood. 

It has been said again and again to her eternal honor, that she never failed 
in her attention to business through all these years of sorrow. But her courage 
failed her for the gayeties of life, the ceremonials of state, and that office of 
social leader and head, which no one else could fill, but which it is so hard to 
undertake with a sorrowful heart. 

Even these duties, however, Her Majesty by degrees, as she was able for 
the exertion, to a certain extent, resumed. 

MARRIAGE OF THE PRINCESS ALICE. 

The first event in the life of the royal family, after the loss of its head, was 
the marriage of the Princess Alice, which was one of the last domestic arrange- 
ments sanctioned and settled by the Prince Consort before his death. 

That it was an event almost more full of sadness than of gladness was 
inevitable in the melancholy circumstances. It took place at Osborne in the 
very depth of mourning, without any of the state and splendor which had 
usually accompanied royal marriages. 

It was in deference to the Princess' wishes that the ceremony was not 
delayed, but nothing could bring the smiles and joy back to the hearts or faces 
of the widow and fatherless. 

Princess Alice was in many respects at that period the most prominent of 
the Queen's children. Her behavior at the death of her father, the self- 
command and native force of character which made her, a slight girl of seven- 
teen, the prop and support, it is scarcely toO' much to say, on which not only 
the distracted mother, but the whole framework of the Constitutional Sover- 



ILLNESS OF THE PRINCE OF WALES. 359 

eignty rested for the moment, had filled the whole country with a sorrowful 
enthusiasm. 

Through this dear daughter the Queen had almost a personal share in the 
suffering involved in the great public calamities which soon after rent the 
continent and changed the face of Europe, 

The Queen had relations innumerable in those battles which concerned 
England so little, except in the way of sympathy, during the dreadful year 
1870. 

Her Majesty could never tell what a day, what a telegram might bring 
of sudden calamity — for bullets are little regardful of Princes, and the Queen 
of England's daughter was as likely as any poor soldier's wife in all that vast 
host to have her home made desolate, and her life shattered any day, 

Victoria, the Princess Royal, was married tO' the Crown Prince of Prussia 
before her father died. 

She is now Dowager Empress of Germany. 

ILLNESS OF THE PRINCE OF WALES. 

In 1 87 1, when peace had begun to settle again over the distracted con- 
tinent, and the happier part of the German conquest, that which concerned 
their internal reorganization and establishment in one great Empire had 
brought Her Majesty the pleasure of a hope fulfilled — the hope of one dearer 
than herself, her never-forgotten husband — as well as that of a great and 
splendid enlargement as was hoped of the future plan and position tO' be filled 
by her daughter, then suddenly rose a great and threatening cloud which 
involved the whole unbroken family in gloom. 

The Prince of Wales fell ill in the autumn of this year with fever, the same 
as that which hid carried off his father ten years before. The disease ran its 
full and longest course, and the life of the heir of their kingdom sank to what 
seemed the last weakness. 

The universal enthusiasm and delight when the Prince, restored to life 
and health, went in state to St. Paul's tO' render thanks for his recovery by 
the side of his happy mother was commonplace in comparison with the extraor- 
dinary passion which took place in the life of the nation during his illness. 



360 CALAMITIES VISIT PRINCESS ALICE. 

It was a thing which no one could have anticipated, and which could have 
been produced by nothing but the spontaneous feeling which made millions 
of people recognize themselves as all of one family and kin. 

The greatest anxiety and trial thus happily overcome, was, perhaps, not 
to be ranked as an evil in life, overwhelming as it was, while it lasted, for the 
greatness of the trial does but increase the joy. 

How much Her Majesty appreciated the public sympathy a public letter 
dated February 29th, 1872, shows: 

"Words are too weak," it runs, "for the Queen to say how very deeply 
touched and gratified she has been by the immense enthusiasm and affection 
exhibited towards her dear son and herself." 

CALAMITIES VISIT PRINCESS ALICE. 

But the Queen was soon to encounter other anxieties. In 1874 the family 
at Hesse, so specially dear to Her Majesty, the children of that daughter 
Alice, who had been her mother's comforter and companion in the greatest 
of her sorrows, was seized with an alarming attack of diphtheria, which 
assailed one member after another — father and six children — all except the 
much-tried mother who. was left to nurse them, though herself still in feeble 
health consequent upon the tragic death of one of her children from a fall 
from the open window, which had occurred in her own room and under her 
eyes. 

A period of great anxiety followed lasting a month, during which tele- 
grams perpetually reached the Queen of every variation in the state of the 
patient, so that Windsor Castle became but a sort of vestibule to the Palace 
at Darmstadt where all that suffering was. 

One of the children died in a week ; the others suffered greatly, but began 
to recover, when at the last, having seen them all out of danger, the Princess 
caught the fatal malady. There were various accounts — all equally pathetic 
and touching — given of the manner in which she caught it. 

It was said, for one thing, that, unable to restrain her anguish after weeks 
of suffering, the poor mother had kissed one of the children, whose little 



UNFORTUNATE EMPEROR FREDERICK. 361 

feverish face had been turned to her appealingly in the struggles of the dread- 
ful complaint. 

Another — and it is supposed the true one — that, worn out by all that she 
had gone through during those weeks of agony, she laid her head in her 
weariness on her husband's pillow, perhaps in a moment of desperation, when 
all she loved seemed to be parting from her. 

Her strength had been utterly exhausted, and she had no power to resist 
the terrible complaint. The husband and the children got better, but the 
young mother, in the height of life, at the time when existence was most 
sweet, was taken from those she had nursed so tenderly. 

Six years after, the youngest son — the invalid of the house from his birth, 
he who had called forth the most anxiety and continual care among that 
family, for the most part so robust and active, and who had, in consequence, 
rarely left his mother's side — Prince Leopold, also died in the most sudden 
and startling manner, adding the effect of a great and painful shock to the 
natural grief. 

Thus, with the usual mingled round of joy and trouble, of anxiety and 
deliverance, and often long intervals of calm, the Queen pursued her quiet 
round of duty never neglected, and royal functions performed with almost too 
little ostentation, so that the ignorant scarcely knew, and the best-informed 
often forgot, how onerous and exhausting these were, until she reached the 
climax of her Jubilee, after fifty years of faithful service to her country and 
the world. 

THE UNFORTUNATE EMPEROR FREDERICK. 

At the time of the celebration of the Golden Jubilee in 1887 Her Majesty 
was surrounded by her joyful and united family, sons and daughters, sons- 
in-law and daughters-in-law, and the already numerous descendants of her 
house in the second generation, in full prosperity and happiness, so many 
households full of love and strength, adding hope and the highest prospects 
for the future to this climax of the mother's individual life. 

Perhaps the most remarkable of the band of Princes who surrounded the 
carriage of the Queen on the day of Jubilee was the gallant and manly figure 



362 QUEEN'S LETTER ON DEATH OF CLARENCE. 

of the Crown Prince of Germany, the husband of her eldest daughter, the 
Princess Royal of Great Britain. 

But this noble Prince was already overshadowed by the disease which was 
to place the seal of mortal vanity upon so many prospects and hopes. 

There was no pair more apt to bear the weight of empire, more qualified 
to carry out the highest schemes, than Frederick of Prussia and Victoria, his 
English wife, both in full maturity of years and mind and moral and intel- 
lectual force, who had naturally looked for years to this great inheritance. 

The whole world knoY^•s the mournful tale, one of the most tragic chapters 
of contemporary history. 

Thus the heaviest trouble came again upon the Queen's life and family. 
She herself, with that courage and indifference to personal exertion which 
always distinguished her, made a hasty and fatiguing journey to Berlin in the 
spring in order to see^ to cheer, and stimulate in their struggle, the husband 
who was dying heroically by inches at his post, and the wife who, in the 
exercise of heroism almost greater, had to stand by and see him die. 

Neither Her Majesty's age nor her health were such as tO' strengthen her 
for such efforts. 

But she carried out her purpose with her usual calm valor, and, as a matter 
of fact, overawed all opposition, and was received with the utmost respect 
during her short and anxious visit, which gave her the mournful satisfaction 
at least of bidding farewell to one who had been to her a son. 

QUEEN'S LETTER ON DEATH OF CLARENCE. 

In November, 1891, the serious illness of Prince George of Wales from 
typhoid fever once more cast a gloom over the court, but happily only for a 
moment, and the year closed joyfully with the convalescence of the young- 
Prince. 

The news came from Sandringham that the Duke of Clarence and 
Avondale was suffering from influenza and inflammation of the lungs. 

For some days there was still hope, and then, on Thursday, January 14th, 
came the fatal news that the Duke had passed away. The tragedy of the 
event on the very eve of his marriage came as a shock to everyone, but to the 



QUEEN'S LETTER ON DEATH OF CLARENCE. 363 

Queen and the Princess of Wales, it was an irremediable trial, and public 
S3^mpathy was deeply stirred. 

The Duke was given a military funeral at Windsor, and shortly afterwards 
the Queen addressed a letter to the Empires which had so genuinely mourned 
v/ith her. 

This letter, which will bear repeating in full, runs : 

"I must once again give expression to my deep sense of the loyalty and 
affectionate sympathy evinced by my subjects in every part of Empire on an 
occasion more sad and tragical than any but one which has befallen me and 
mine, as well as the nation. 

"The overwhelming misfortune of my dearly loved grandson having been 
thus suddenly cut off in the flower of his age, full of promise for the future, 
amiable and gentle, and endearing himself to all, renders it hard for his sorely 
stricken parents, his dear, young bride, and his fond grandmother to bow in 
submission to the inscrutable decrees of Providence. 

'The sympathy of millions, which has been so touchingly and visibly 
expressed, is deeply gratifying at such a time, and I wish both in my own 
name and that of my children, to express from my heart, my warm gratitude 
to all. 

"These testimonials of sympathy with us, and appreciation of my dear 
grandson, whom I loved as a son, and whose devotion to me was as great as 
that oa a son, will be a help and consolation to me and mine in our affliction. 

"My bereavements during the last thirty years of my reign have indeed 
been heavy. Though the labors, anxieties, and responsibilities inseparable 
from my position have been great, yet it is my earnest prayer that God may 
continue to give me health and strength to work for the good and happiness 
of my dear Country and Empire while life lasts. 

"Victoria, R. I." 

Early in 1896 the Queen and her youngest daughter Princess Beatrice 
suffered another severe loss in the death of Prince Henry of Battenberg, who 
contracted fever on the West Coast of Africa with the Ashanti Expedition. 

The body of the Prince was brought hom.e to England on board H. M. S. 



364 EVENTS OF A HAPPIER NATURE. 

Blenheim, and the funeral took place at Whippingham, where, in 1885, he 

had married the Princess Beatrice. 

Her Majesty, who was much overcome by the loss of her son-in-law, to 
whom she had become greatly attached, was present at the funeral service, 
and in her speech at the opening of Parliament referred to the Prince as her 
"beloved son-in-law who voluntarily placed his valuable services at the dis- 
posal of myself and his adopted country." 

EVENTS OF A HAPPIER NATURE. 

After the death of the Prince Consort the marriage of the greater number 
of her children, and the bringing up of a second generation about the royal 
house restored more or less, as years passed, the atmosphere of cheerfulness 

and hope. 

These marriages had all been, on the model of Her Majesty's own union, 

marriages of inclination, the setting up of many households as full of affec- 
tion and happiness. It is the national boast that an English home in every 
rank and condition of life is far beyond the average of any other nation, as 
in no other nation is the theory that love alone is the great condition of 
marriage so fully acknowledged. 

The marriage of the Prince of Wales, the Princess Helena, and Louise 
soon followed that of the Princess Alice, the latter on the conclusion of the 
stormy period of the continental wars, and distinguished by the first breach 
of the long-standing royal custom of marrying the daughters of the reigning 
house only to Princes. 

The bridegroom in this case, though a subject, had as genuine a title to 
be called Prince, had such been the fashion in the islands, as many a 
secondary continental Sovereign, and much more than many of the scions of 
German houses who are distinguished by that title. 

The Duke of Edinburgh made the most splendid of matches by bringing 
home, in 1874, the daughter of the Tsar, the Grand Duchess Marie, as his 
bride. The marriage of the three younger children of the royal house fol- 
lowed in succession. 



LAST THREE YEARS OF HER LIFE. 365 

THE QUEEN GOES TO THE CONTINENT. 

The whole of the year 1892 was passed very quietly and sadly by the court, 
but in 1893 Her Majesty was seen a good deal in public. In March she spent 
a month at the Villa Palmieri at Florence, and later on held several drawing 
rooms. 

One of the most important public events of the year was the opening of 
the Imperial Institute on May nth. Her Majesty had laid the foundation- 
stone on July 4th, 1887, with much state, but the inaugural ceremony was 
one of the most brilliant spectacles of the present reign. 

The streets were thronged from Buckingham Palace to South Kensington 
at an early hour, and the whole of the route was lined with troops. 

In 1894 Her Majesty went abroad, and, as before, stayed at Florence for 
some weeks, when the King and Queen of Italy paid her a visit. 

The Queen then went on to Coburg, where she was present at the wedding 
of her grandson, the Grand Duke of Hesse, to her granddaughter, the Prin- 
cess Victoria Melita of Coburg, on April 19th. 

On her return to England Her Majesty went to Manchester to open the 
Ship Canal on May 21st, and after making a short trip from Irlum to Man- 
chester, declared the waterway open, and knighted the Lord Mayor of 
Manchester, the Mayor of Salford, the engineer of the canal, and some other 
notabilities. 

In the year 1895 Her Majesty again v/ent abroad in the spring, but to Nice 
instead of tO' Florence, thus beginning that series of visits to the Riviera. On 
her way home the Queen paid a visit to Darmstadt, where she was visited by 
the German Emperor and the Empress Frederick. 

Among the Queen's visitors were Nasrullah Khan, the son of the Ameer 
of Afghanistan, and the German Emperor, and one of the chief home events 
of the year was a grand review at Aldershot in July, when the Duke of Con- 
naught led twelve thousand troops of all arms past the Queen. 

THE LAST THREE YEARS OF HER LIFE. 

In March, 1896, the Queen left England for Cimiez with Princess Chris- 
tian and Princess Victoria, and after seven weeks' stay in the Riviera Her 
Majesty returned to England and went at once to Windsor. 



366 LAST THREE YEARS OF HER LIFE. 

A notable visitor in the summer was the Chinese Envoy Li Hung Chang, 
who was received in audience by the Queen at Osborne, and met with a recep- 
tion which it is to be feared would hardly be as cordial now, while in June 
Her Majesty entered upon the sixtieth year of her reign. 

By a happy coincidence, the Tsar and Tsaritsa of Russia arrived at Bal- 
moral on a visit to the Queen on September 23d, and prolonged their stay 
until October 3d. The Tsar and Tsaritsa arrived at Leith, where they were 
received by the Prince of Wales, and from Ballater drove in carriages to^ Bal- 
moral, where Her Majesty received them surrounded by her retainers bearing 
torches. The visit was a purely domestic one. 

It was early in 1898, after spending Christmas at Osborne, that evidence 
was given in more than one direction of that kindly thought for others which 
was always one of Her Majesty's strongest characteristics. 

Orders were given that Kensington Palace should be thrown open to the 
public, whereby everyone can now go and wander round the place of which 
so much mention is made earlier in these pages — a place which everyone knows 
is crowded with memories of Her Majesty's childhood. 

Again, soldiers from Benin were reviewed and made happy by meeting 
their sovereign, while in February Her Majesty paid one of those visits to 
Netley Hospital, which were always a source of infinite gratification tO' the 
men who had fallen in her service. 

The spring was again spent at Cimiez, Her Majesty returning to hold the 
usual Drawing-room and again to visit Netley, both visits being to carry 
comfort and consolation to the wounded men from the Tirah campaign. 

Her Majesty was well enough then to rise from her chair to pin the Vic- 
toria Cross to the breasts of Private Vickery and the famous Piper Findlater. 

The rest of the year was spent comparatively quietly at Balmoral, Wind- 
sor, and Osborne, reviews, presentations of colors, and a private investiture of 
the Order of the Bath, Star of India, St. Michael and St. George, and of the 
Indian Empire being perhaps the chief events. 

It should be mentioned, though, that a third visit was paid to Netley, this 
time Her Majesty being received by the then Sirdar (Lord Kitchener), when 
many wounded soldiers from Omdurman were personally decorated with the 



CHRISTMAS PRESENTS FOR HER TROOPS. 367 

Soudan medal, while two visits were paid to the Prince of Wales on the 
Royal yacht Osborne, who, it will be remembered, was an invalid for some 
time by reason of a slight accident to his knee. 

The following year opened quietly enough, however darkly it went out. 
Her Majesty went for her usual spring holiday to Nice, traveling via Folke- 
stone and Boulogne, the "Calais-Douvres" in which she sailed being accom- 
panied by two lines of torpedo destroyers, with whose appearance Her 
Majesty was much pleased. 

It is worthy of notice in this connection that the previous time on which 
the Queen had landed at Boulogne was in August, 1855, in company with the 
Prince Consort, the Prince of Wales, and Princess Alice, on which occasion 
she was received by the Emperor Napoleon HI. 

On Her Majesty's return she visited Kensington Palace, and carefully 
inspected the home of her childhood preparatory to its being thrown open to 
the public on Her Majesty's birthday as Her Majesty's Diamond Jubilee gift 
to the nation, while another notable function in the same month (May) was 
the laying of the foundation stone of the Victoria and Albert Museum at 
Kensington. 

CHRISTMAS PRESENTS FOR HER TROOPS. 

In 1899, for the first time for thirteen years, the Queen spent Christmas 
at Windsor, on Boxing Day entertaining at tea in St. George's Hall wives and 
families of soldiers at the front. 

Throughout this trying time, indeed, no one could have been more happily 
inspired than the sovereign, of whom it has often been said that she was 
beyond measure the cleverest statesman — or stateswoman, shall it be said — 
in the country. 

And not the least of the thoughtful and happily inspired actions which Her 
Majesty did at this period was to send to each of the soldiers in South Africa 
a New Year's present of chocolate as a "personal gift." 

No gift could have been more welcome. It was gracious and timely. In 
some homes the little tins, with the portrait of the Queen on the lid, are likely 
to be cherished for many a long day. Some were sold for considerable sums, 



368 CHRISTMAS PRESENTS FOR HER TROOPS. 

it is true ; but in nearly every case this was a sacrifice made by the recipient to 
raise funds for a comrade's widow or children, others the writer has seen 
elaborately framed, showing the value in which they were held, while the 
chocolate itself was a real benefit to many a man on short rations, for its value 
as food is now well known, and the day has gone by when one could laugh at a 
"chocolate soldier." 

Despite a very welcome visit to Windsor from the German Emperor and 
Empress, the year ended darkly enough. 

The Queen decided to abandon the projected spring visit to Bordighera, 
and to stay among her own people in her own country. No announcement 
could have been more timely or created better feeling, but in the last year of 
her life the Queen did many things to show how real was the bond of sym- 
pathy between her and her people. 

The visit to London was in every way a success, and caused unbounded 
satisfaction. When the royal train steamed into Paddington, London was 
ready. From Paddington to the Victoria Gate, from the Victoria Gate 
through the Park, from Hyde Park Corner to Buckingham Palace, the line 
of the Queen's subjects — her subjects and her protectors — was unbroken. 

Through this avenue of her people the Queen drove in an open carriage, 
with no other escort than a dozen Life Guards and a few mounted police, and 
one wonders whether any other monarch could have done the same. 

With the Queen's carriage ran a never-ending cheer. When it reached a 
great open space the cheer changed its treble note — the note of women's and 
children's voices — for the fuller, deeper note of men's cheers, and the roar of 
applause suddenly changed once more to the stirring notes of the National 
Anthem. 

This happened at Hyde Park Corner and again at Buckingham Palace, 
where a dense crowd waited outside, and where the Peers and Commons 
waited bare-headed inside the gates. 




55 

O 
Q 
12; 
O 

o 
o 

H 
W 

H 



CHAPTER XXII. 

The Crown and the Colonies — The Condition and Extent of Britain's Colonial 
Empire at Victoria's Accession — Expansion During Her Reign — The Neo- 
Colonial Idea and Its Evolution During the Victorian Era — The Birth of 
the Colonial OflB.ce as a Special Department of State— The B. E'. A. Act the 
Fullest Charter Possessed by any Crown Colony — The dueen's Personal 
Influence in Colonial Government — Oath of Allegiance — Canada at the 
Jubilee — Culmination of Colonial Patriotism in Contributing Troops for 
Imperial Defense. 

N contemplating the constant progress of the British flag the mind is 
tempted by the Biblical simile — "as the waters cover the sea." But a 
mere index of colonial possessions does not place the finger upon the 
colonizing genius of the Victorian Era. That is to be seen most clearly in 
the process of. transformation which the older colonies have undergone, par- 
ticularly Canada, whose national birth is not beyond the memory of the 
oldest inhabitant. The Canada that professed colonial allegiance to William 
IV. and the Canada that sent four thousand troops to the defense of the 
Empire in South Africa are, to all but the most unimaginative, two different 
countries. Many people do not know that within only a few years of Vic- 
toria's accession, our annual deficits were met by a draft on the Imperial 
Treasury. From 1818, the date which marks the last of such payments, the 
Canadian colonies, self-sustained, have gone forward with steady steps, and 
to-day our united confederation is one of the bulwarks of that great Empire 
on which the sun never sets, and a patriotic pattern for the younger outposts. 
Before tracing this national development, however, it is instructive to 
examine the various stages by which the present colonial policy of Greater 
Britain has been evolved. In his excellent work on "British Colonial 
Policy," Egerton divides colonial history into the following divisions: the 
period of beginnings; the period of trade ascendancy; the period of sys- 
tematic colonization (which includes the granting of responsible govern- 
ment); the period of the zenith and decline of the laissez-aller principles; 
and the period of Greater Britain. 

371 



372 THE CROWN AND THE COLONIES. 

The first of these periods, of vague description, is characterized by such 
charters as that granted to the Virginia Company in 1606, by which legisla- 
tive authority is retained by the Crown, and executive functions delegated 
to a local Governor. The period of trade ascendancy was called into being 
by the Navigation Act of 1651, which in its operation induced the English 
merchant to follow the English ship-owner: and from 1660, for more than 
a hundred years, the raison d'etre of British colonies was to benefit the 
commerce of the mother country. This theory inevitably relegated the 
colonies to a position of permanent subordination in the economic evolution 
of the Em.pire. The great wars of the earlier half of the eighteenth century 
were trade wars — Ireland, the colonies, war and peace, were but pawns in 
the game which was to win Great Britain the commercial supremacy of the 
world. To eighteenth-century eyes this policy may have been a wise one, 
but its effect was to sacrifice the interests of the colony to those of the 
mother country. This was, in short, the Mercantile System — and its specific 
result was the American Revolution. Monopoly brought forth its fruit, and 
that fruit was the disruption of the Empire. 

But the loss of the Thirteen Colonies did not immediately convince 
British statesmen of an erroneous colonial policy. Gradually, however, a 
new point of view was arrived at. Turgot had long ago remarked that 
colonies were like fruit which, when ripe, fell off : and the American Revolu- 
tion was evidence that his wit might be also grim truth. The old colonial 
poHcy had been based on the theory of monopoly : but the doctrine of free 
trade was sapping that theory at its roots. This in time led to a virtual 
abandonment of the Mercantile System, and produced an attempt at sys- 
tematic colonization on somewhat more liberal and enlightened principles. 
It was during this encouraging era that the colonies aspired to self-govern- 
ment. [The laissez-aller period, which follows closely upon the granting of 
self-government, was perhaps a natural result in view of the Liberalism that 
predominated the political life of the sixties. Although there were a few 
Little Englanders who even advocated the separation of the colonies 
from the motherland, the more deliberate statesmen of that day, with a 
pessimism that characterized the Manchester School, looked upon such 



THE CROWN AND THE COLONIES. 3Y3 

separation as inevitable; but pending such event they put forth their best 
efforts to make the eventual dissolution of the Empire as mild and dignified 
as possible. On the other hand, the English people were far from accepting 
the theories of these unenthusiastic politicians, and the passage of the 
British North America Act gave a most hopeful tone to Imperialism, and 
ushered in the Greater Britain period, the conclusion and outcome of which 
cannot this day be foretold, although speculation has been ventured by 
almost every public man between the two extremes, Joseph Chamberlain 
and John Morley. Mr. Egerton thus describes the culminating period : 

"It must be remembered that those colonies had expanded into great 
democratic communities, and in many ways appealed more to the democ- 
racy than they could to the fastidious taste of the Whig oligarchy. Again, 
new facts had to be considered. The latter half of the nineteenth century 
has seen an immense recrudescence of militarism amongst the Continental 
powers of Europe. Nearly fifty years after the great Exhibition, which was 
to open out an era of peace, Europe presents the amazing spectacle of an 
armed camp. Face to face with this unexpected phenomenon, England has 
either to yield her place among the nations — and whatever the nature of 
the 'economic man,' prestige will always be dear to nations no less than to 
individuals — or else adapt herself in new ways to the new circumstances. 
But a world-empire, sea-girt, and resting on the command of the sea, is a 
spectacle at least as imposing as the nations-in-arms of the Continent; and 
this seems the ideal which England at last is realizing. Other causes have 
been also at work to act upon our colonial policy. Our chief concern, said 
Cobden, with foreign nations is to trade with them, but the chief concern 
of foreign nations appears to be not to trade with us. By dint of protective 
duties upon imports from abroad, and by bounties on home exports, the 
aim of every country appears to be to surround its trade with a ring fence. 
It may well be that such a policy is really suicidal, and that free trade has 
been none the less a benefit to England, because the sanguine hopes held 
out by its first prophets of its general acceptance have not been at all ful- 
filled; but it is natural that in the state of things we see around us, men 
should look more and more to the colonies as the producers of our new 



374 THE CROWN AND THE COLONIES. 

materials and the customers for our manufactures, and hanker after some 
kind of zollverein among the scattered portions of the empire, however 
difficult it may be to enact such in express terms. Moreover, human nature 
remaining what it is, there is nothing which causes men to put so high a 
value on their own possessions as the observing that they are being coveted 
by their neighbors. The scramble for colonies among the Continental 
nations has had the good effect at least of determining the English not to be 
left behind in the race for empire. To these practical considerations others 
of a more theoretic nature have been added. A distinguished Cambridge 
professor threw a powerful search-light on the development of British 
empire, and brought home to thousands of readers, who had never before 
thought of it, the sense that, after all, our colonies are only England beyond 
the seas — a greater England, but England all the same. A brilliant Ameri- 
can writer and naval expert first clearly made manifest the connection of 
England's colonial and Imperial greatness with the command of the sea, 
and carried home to the conviction of Englishmen the truth that, without 
that command of the sea, our scattered empire is only a source of weakness. 
The Press has also played great part in the new movement. For example, 
consider the influence of the weekly article in the Times on the colonies, 
and compare the spirit which animates it with the indifferent and half- 
contemptuous tone on colonial matters of the Times of thirty years ago. 
In this state of things, and when both political parties have, with a few 
exceptions, more notable for ability than weight, nailed to the mast the flag 
of British naval and colonial supremacy, we have traveled far from the 
period of laissez-aller. It is difficult to give a name to the new policy. The 
word IMPERIAL has too military a suggestion. Perhaps the words 
GREATER BRITAIN best describe the new point of view. A world- 
empire, the separate parts of which are being more and more closely linked 
by the discoveries of science, enjoying in each separate part absolute inde- 
pendence, connected not by coercion of paper bulwarks but by common 
origin and sympathies, by a common loyalty and patriotism, and by com- 
mon efforts after common purposes, .such, amidst much to alarm and to 
disturb, is the apparent outcome of history, the colonial policy with which 



THE CROWN AND THE COLONIES. 375 

Great Britain will enter upon the untrodden paths of a new century." 
To fit Canada into the scheme of colonial history that has been outlined, 
it is first necessary to point out that Canada does not figure at all in British 
colonial history till after 1760, which is well toward the ' ^se of the Mercan- 
tile period. The influx of United Empire Loyalists after the American 
Revolution naturally hastened the arrival of that period which is char- 
acterized by the granting of self-government, for it is obvious that the 
presence in Canada of this new and powerful element rendered necessary 
some modification of the Quebec Act. It almost goes without saying that 
the influence of the Crown upon the colony was by no means weakened by 
the special concession of a liberal constitution soon after their arrival, since 
it was personal adherence to the British Crown that sent them into the 
country. 

While it is true that the recognition of American independence was the 
virtual death of the Mercantile System, its ghost still survived to distract 
politicians up to the final repeal of the Navigation Laws in 1849. But long 
before that date, notably in 1825, the direction of colonial afifairs by the 
thoughtful Huskisson had resulted in the practical substitution of the theory 
of reciprocity for the time-worn doctrine of monopoly. And yet, while 
Huskisson was far in advance of his colleagues in the matter of colonial 
administration, it is evident that he hardly dared to hope that Canada could 
be indefinitely retained to the Crown. Christie, in his History of Lower 
Canada, reproduces a speech delivered by Huskisson in 1828 in which this 
passage occurs: "* * * * Whether Canada is to remain forever depend- 
ent upon England or to become an independent State * * * it is still 
the duty and interest of this country to imbue it with English feeling and 
benefit it with English laws and English institutions." This then, generally 
speaking, is the policy respecting Crown colonies that prevailed at the 
accession of Queen Victoria. All the later periods of colonial development 
are coeval with her era. 

Those of us who have lived to cross the threshold of a new century will 
appreciate the wonderful development of colonial policy during Victoria's 
reign by comparing with the perfectly regulated system of responsible 



376 THE CROWN AND THE COLONIES. 

government under which we live a picture of Canadian politics as they were 
in 1837. At that time, the government was popular but not responsible; 
and in addition, the executive machinery was singularly weak. The 
Executive Connc'' were the advisers of the Governor, but there was no 
division into departments, no individual responsibility, and no individual 
superintendence. Each member of the Council took an equal part in all 
the business brought before it. The power of removing councillors was 
rarely exercised, so that the Governor was obliged either to consult advisers 
in whom he had no confidence, or to make use of only a portion of the 
Council. The secrecy of the proceedings, moreover, added to its irresponsi- 
bility. Upon the whole, no more unfit instrument could have been devised 
with which to oppose a demagogic Assembly. The Family Compact 
possessed themselves of all the important public ofl[ices by means of which, 
and of their influence in the Executive Council, they wielded all the power 
of government. The political friction which existed at this time is thus 
described by Lord Durham : 

"Having no responsible ministers to deal with, it [The Assembly] 
entered upon that system of long enquiries, by means of its Committees, 
which brought the whole action of the Executive immediately under its 
purview, and transgressed our notions of the proper limits of Parliamentary 
interference. Having no influence in the choice of any public functionary, 
no power to procure the removal of such as were obnoxious to it on merely 
political grounds, and seeing almost every office in the colony filled by 
persons in whom it had no confidence, it entered upon that vicious course of 
assailing its prominent opponents individually, and disqualifying them for 
the public service by making them the subjects of enquiries and consequent 
impeachments; not always conducted with even the appearance of a due 
regard to justice; and when nothing else would attain its end of altering the 
policy or the composition of the Colonial Government, it had recourse to 
that ultima ratio of representative power, to which the more prudent for- 
bearance of the Crown has never driven the House of Commons in England, 
and endeavored to disable the whole machinery of government by a general 
refusal of the supplies." 



THE CROWN AND THE COLONIES. 37Ti 

And yet, while on the surface a political revolution seemed about to be 
precipitated, it cannot be doubted that there was a fixed determination on 
the part of the great majority of the people not to break with the British 
Crown. 

We have seen, and shall further see, that prior to the Victorian Era 
there had been no enlightened colonial polity within the limits of the British 
Empire; but a sketch of the development of the Colonial Office, as one of 
the 'principal departments of the Imperial Government, is necessary to a 
comprehension of the progressive system which has been worked out by 
the greatest colonizing power the world has ever seen. In these opening 
days of the Twentieth Century, colonies grow in importance, and in demand 
almost hourly. Even republics stretch out mailed hands across the seas to 
grasp an island here, an island there, or a peninsula somewhere else: 
isthmian canals are part of the scheme, and so are transcontinental railways, 
and Cape-to-Cairo routes. To-day, the main motives of international 
alliances, is the acquisition, retention, and development of colonial posses- 
sions. Great Britain, the United States, and Germany, in commercial 
advance of other nations, find their interests and ambitions running along 
one and the same line, and are naturally in accord. France and Russia 
have common interests in the Orient — to disturb England in India, and to 
widen their spheres of influence in China. Italy finds an alliance with 
England advantageous on account of African ambitions. Thus, it may be 
stated that the foreign or international policies of the Great Powers have 
come to depend more and more upon colonial possessions. It is for this 
reason that the Colonial Office, as an eminent state department, is distinct- 
ively a product of the Victorian Age. 

To go back to its very beginnings: the first separate organization for 
the central administration of colonial affairs was a committee of the Privy 
Council "for the plantacons," instituted in November, 1660. A month 
later a "Council of Foreign Plantations" was created by Letters Patent. A 
few years later, in 1672, this special council was united to a Council for 
Trade, and the two together were known thenceforth as the "Council for 
Trade and Plantations." In 1677, this joint council was suppressed and its 



378 THE CROWN AND THE COLONIES. 

functions, which had been very badly neglected, were transferred to the 
Privy Council. This arrangement continued till 1695 when the committee 
charged with the conduct of colonial affairs was reconstituted, with eight 
members of parliament as its personnel, and in this form continued to exist 
till 1782. From 1678, however, colonial affairs have been dealt wath by a 
Secretary of State. In that year, a Secretary of State for the "American 
Department" was appointed; but this office was abolished by Burke's Act, 
in 1782, on the loss of the American colonies. This act also gave to a com- 
mittee of the Privy Council all the functions exercised by the old "Council 
of Trade and Foreign Plantations," and pending the appointment of this 
committee, colonial affairs were dealt with by a subordinate branch of the 
Department for Home Affairs, styled the Plantations Branch. (At this time, 
the work of the two principal secretaries of state was divided into Home 
and Foreign Affairs.) In 1784, in pursuance of Burke's Act, the "Com- 
mittee for Trade and Foreign Plantations" was reorganized, and took over 
the colonial business from the Home Office. In 1793, on account of the 
war with France, a "Secretary of State for War" was appointed, who also 
was charged with the administration of the colonies; but these two depart- 
ments were not actually united till 1801, when Lord Hobart was created 
"Secretary for the War and Colonial Department." Accordingly, from 
1794, the Committee of Trade and Foreign Plantations came to be known 
as "The Board of Trade." After the conclusion of the French war, the 
attention of the Secretary for War was chiefly occupied with the business 
of the Colonies; and finally in 1854, the administration of the Colonies was 
made a special department of State. 

The following is a list of Secretaries of State for the Colonies during the 
reign of Queen Victoria. (Of course, it will be remembered that up to 1854, 
the Co-onial Secretaries were also Secretaries for War.) : 
1835. Lord Glenelg. 

1838. Lord John Russell. 

1839. Lord Normanby. 

1841. Lord Stanley (afterwards Lord Derby). 
1845. W. E. Gladstone. 



THE CROWN AND THE COLONIES. 879 

1846. Lord Grey. 

1852. Sir J. Pakington. 

1852. Duke of Newcastle. 

1854. Sir George Grey. 

Feb., 1855. S. Herbert. 

May, 1855. Lord John Russell. 

July, 1855. Sir W. Molesworth. 

Nov., 1855. H. Labouchere (afterwards Lord Taunton). 

1858. Lord Stanley (afterwards Lord Derby). 

1858. Sir E. B. Lytton. 

1859. Duke of Newcastle. 
1864. E. Cardwell. 

1866. Lord Carnarvon. 

1867. Duke of Buckingham. 

1868. Lord Granville. 
1870. Lord Kimberley. 
1874. Lord Carnarvon. 
1878. Sir M. Hicks-Beach. 
1880. Lord Kimberley. 
1882. Lord Derby. 

1885. Colonel Stanley. 

1886. Lord Granville. 
1886 E. Stanhope. 

1887. Sir H. Holland (afterwards Lord Knutsford). 
1892. Lord Ripon. 

1895. Joseph Chamberlain. 
Queen Victoria's first delegate to Canada, Lord Durham, found "two 
nations warring in the bosom of a single state." Her second representative 
consummated the political union of the two provinces in 1840. This date 
also marks the beginnings of responsible government in Canada, although 
for many years the full meaning of that system was not perceived, nor its 
whole purpose accomplished. Twenty-five years later, in 1865, a set of 
circumstances had been developed which made necessary a distinct step 



380 THE CROWN AND THE COLONIES. 

forward. Canadian delegates were despatched to confer with Imperial 
ministers on the question of national defence, and on the matter of confed- 
eration. Their mission to England, in their own words, was "to inspire 
more just views as to the position and feelings of the Canadian people, and 
to draw closer the ties that have so long and so happily attached our 
provinces to the mother country." 

This official utterance is remarkable in that it indicates the unXvavering 
loyalty of the Canadian provinces at a time when colonial and Imperial 
enthusiasm was at its lowest ebb in England. The Crimean War and the 
Chinese War had severely demonstrated the incapacity of the Whigs and 
Peelites, and the spirit of England was depressed. Moreover, during the 
period immediately succeeding, the personality of Mr. Gladstone fills the 
center of the political stage; and about this time began the ascendancy of 
the Manchester School. Yet, in the face of it all, the Canadian provinces 
were working out an Imperial destiny in the British North America Act. 
That Act still constitutes the largest charter possessed by any dependency 
of the Crown, and forms the basis of the present constitution of the Domin- 
ion of Canada. It is worth while reviewing briefly its provisions. 

The British North America Act, 1867 (30 and 31 Vic, c. 3), embodied 
in an Imperial Statute the resolutions which had been agreed upon at a 
meeting of representatives from all the provinces, held at Quebec in 1864. 
The Confederation was to be known as the Dominion of Canada, and was 
to consist of Canada, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. Provision was 
also made for admitting to the union Newfoundland, Prince Edward 
Island and British Columbia, as well as the less organized territories of the 
west. Under this Act, the Executive power over the whole Dominion was 
vested in the Queen and Privy Council constituting the ministry. Legisla- 
tive power was vested in a Parliament, consisting of the Queen, a Senate, 
and a House of Commons, each House to possess such powers, immunities 
and privileges as might be defined by Act of Parliament, but so as not to 
exceed the privileges, immunities and powers exercised "at the passing of 
this Act," by the British House of Commons. The members of the Senate 
were to be nominated for life by the Governor-General, who made this and 



THE CROWN AND THE COLONIES. 381 

all other appointments by and with the consent of the Privy Council con- 
stituting his Ministry. To prevent a possible clash between the Senate and 
the House, it was enacted that the Governor-General should have the 
power to summon three or six additional Senators, "representing equally 
the three divisions of Canada," but in such case no other person might be 
summoned "except on a further like direction by the Queen on the like 
recommendation," until each of the three divisions was represented by no 
more than twenty-four Senators. In no case was the total number to exceed 
seventy-eight. The House of Commons was to consist at first of one 
hundred and eighty-one members, of which eighty-one were to be elected 
for Ontario, sixty-five for Quebec, nineteen for Nova Scotia, and fifteen for 
New Brunswick. At each decennial census the representation of the four 
provinces was to be readjusted according to population— Quebec keeping 
the fixed number of sixty-five members, and the other provinces having 
their numbers readjusted in proportion. The duration of Parliament was to 
be five years. English parliamentary practice as to money bills was closely 
followed. Under the Statute, the Governor-General had power either to 
assent to colonial measures, to withhold his assent, or reserve them for the 
signification of the Queen's pleasure. In the case of bills reserved the assent 
of the Queen in Council must be announced within two years after their 
receipt by the Secretary of State for the Colonies. The legislative powers 
were definitely divided between the Federal and Provincial governments; 
and on this point, Mr. Bryce in his American Commonwealth thus describes 
the difference between the American Federal Union and the Canadian 
Confederation: "Whereas in the United States, Congress has only those 
powers actually granted to it, the State legislatures retaining all such powers 
as have not been taken from them, the Dominion Parliament has a general 
power of legislation restricted only by the granting of certain specific and 
exclusive powers to the Provincial legislatures." 

It is fitting that a chapter under the caption, "The Crown and the 
Colonies," should be brought to a close by demonstrating the personal 
influence which a constitutional sovereign has been able to wield in an essen- 
tially democratic Dominion. 



382 THE CROWN AND THE COLONIES. 

The oath of allegiance prescribed by the British North America Act 
(Sec. 128) is brief, but pregnant with loyalty: "I, A. B., do swear that 
I will be faithful and bear true allegiance to Her Majesty Queen Victoria." 
That oath says little, but means much: but two million French subjects are 
just as ready to pledge themselves as the four million Enghsh; and from 
the Atlantic to the Pacific there is no disloyalty. Secession or annexation 
cannot thrive in a Canadian climate. And that Canada has no "nationalist 
party," or, indeed, any sharp cleavage in her politics, has been due in large 
measure to the wisdom and personality of that great sovereign who has just 
crossed the bar. The Dominion of Canada is a monarchical country in every 
sense of the word, and Queen Victoria has done much personally to make 
it so. The doctrine of an absolute monarchy had been swept away before 
she came to the throne of England; but the position of the sovereign was 
not well defined till long after 1837. It is, in fact, from Queen Victoria that 
we have derived the modern and wise understanding of the relation of the 
constitutional ruler to the State : and no longer is it possible that the voice 
of the people should conflict with the Crown. It was Queen Victoria's high 
statesmanship that harmonized the democracy with the monarchy, and 
united the popular right of self-government with the authority of the Crown 
to influence and to modify. Nor in efifecting this compromise did Her 
Majesty reduce the monarchy or impair its usefulness as an estate of the 
realm. Rather by setting the bounds of freedom wider yet did she place 
that monarchy on a firmer foundation — the afifection of a united people and 
the loyalty of a world-wide Empire. 

It has been shown that the rebellion of 1837 failed on account of the 
steadfast loyalty to the British Crown which predominated the country; 
and that to this day the fidelity of Canadians to the Sovereign has never 
wavered. It is true that there have been dark days in colonial history, 
political and industrial : but the Canadian patriot has never failed to find a 
satisfaction in the thought that Queen Victoria had a personal interest and 
sympathy for the colony whatever its distresses. The political motions of 
the sovereign are, for the most part, necessarily invisible, and in many mat- 
ters of legislation we have not seen the hand of the Queen guiding the ship 



THE CROWN AND THE COLONIES. 383 

of state; but occasionally the veil has been lifted, notably in the diplomatic 
adjustment of large issues, and that hand has been observed exercising a 
gentle and kindly authority, and making for concord and good-will among 
the nations. Similarly, the Queen's official attitude towards her colonial 
dependencies has not been always observable : but evidences are not want- 
ing to show her especial interest in the Canadian Dominion. One of her 
earliest expressions of kindness was the sending of the Prince of Wales to 
make a progress through the country and to open the Victoria Bridge, in 
response to the invitation of the Canadian Parliament that Her Majesty 
and the Prince Consort should pay Canada a visit. Later, she was much 
concerned about Confederation. When the Canadian delegates were in 
England attending to the requisite legislation, she insisted upon seeing them 
and discussing the question with them. It was vv^ith pleasure that she 
learned that the business was progressing favorably, for, as she told Sir John 
Macdonald, she was most anxious for the welfare of her Canadian subjects. 
When the Canadian Pacific Railway was completed, Her Majesty signaHzed 
the event by a cablegram of congratulation upon the accomplishment of a 
work which she hoped would result in much good to the Empire. No great 
Canadian has visited England without receiving an invitation to dine with 
the Queen at Windsor. It was while the guest of the Queen that Sir John 
Thompson died; and nothing could have been more kindly than Her 
Majesty's consideration on that sad occasion. From Windsor, by her com- 
mand, after a funeral ceremony A\l:iich she attended, the remains were 
reverently conveyed to one of Her Majesty's ships, which brought them to 
Canada. 

In 1895 Queen Victoria graciously sat for her portrait at the request of 
a Canadian artist, who himself describes her favor thus : "The sitting was 
given in the historic white drawing-room nearest the private apartments. 
The Queen was attended by Princess Louise, with whom she engaged in 
conversation during the sitting. The conversation was carried on in Ger- 
man, which language the Royal family generally use in private. I noticed 
then that her voice was very strong and clear, and that her eyesight seemed 
exceedingly good. She seemed also very bright and lively in conversation. 



884 THE CROWN AND THE COLONIES. 

She walked with the aid of a stick and an Indian attendant, but moved 
very rapidly. The Queen sat very well and was most considerate. I 
received many little courtesies, which were even more pronounced because 
I was a Canadian. This fact, so I was told, greatly assisted me in obtaining 
the permission of Her Majesty for a sitting." 

The present Premier of Ontario, in the course of an eloquent tribute 
to the memory of Queen Victoria, said: "Looking over Her Majesty's 
career as Sovereign one is impressed with her sagacity in the management 
of her councilors. She presided over Cabinets composed of some of the 
greatest statesmen of the age. Among her Prime Ministers were Peel, and 
Russell, and Palmerston, and Beaconsfield, and Gladstone, and Salisbury — 
all men of strong convictions, and born rulers of men. Among such a 
variety of talent and such masterful men, one might suppose that the 
Sovereign would be overshadowed if not overawed. Not so. She was 
always Queen and Sovereign both. Her keen instinct as to what was best 
for the nation enabled her to guide even the strongest Minister through the 
most critical periods of political strife, and her voice, though not heard 
outside her own Council chamber, was the voice by which the will of the 
nation was really expressed. Who can measure her service to the Empire, 
and who can now in the hour of our sadness and bereavement estimate the 
tremendous loss to the Empire and the world which has now fallen upon 
them by the passing away of Her Sovereign Majesty Queen Victoria?" 

Finally, it cannot be doubted that the personal qualities of the late 
sovereign had much to do with the shaping of the destiny of Britain beyond 
the seas. At the outbreak of the war in South Africa, her far-flung battle- 
line stood to arms : and Greater Britain drawing troops from the four quar- 
ters of the globe to meet an Imperial emergency presented an amazing 
spectacle to the world militant. The despatch of the Canadian and the 
Australian contingents indicates indeed the high-water mark of colonial 
history. "The strength of England," wrote Goldwin Smith, "lies in herself, 
not in her dependencies" : but Queen Victoria lived to see the disproof of 
all Little England theories. Those who are not beyond middle-age, perad- 
venture, will live to see strange things: but those who have outlived the 
Victorian Era have passed through the most wonderful period of all time. 



CHAPTER XXIII. 

The Queen's Representatives in Canada — Provisions in tlie Canadian Constitution 
Respecting the Uueen — Former Practice of Eoyal Representation and Steps 
by Which It has Attained Its Present Form — The Sovereign's Functions 
Defined — Notable Viceroys, and Incidents of Their Administrations — 
Evidences of Her Majesty's Special Interest in Canada — Ker Personal 
Grace Toward Baroness Macdonald, Sir John Thompson, the National 
Council of Women, and to the Soldiers Returning from the War. 

IT IS a more or less common error to suppose that the Crown is not an 
active factor in the administration of Canadian affairs. As a matter of 

fact, the right of the Crown as the supreme executive authority through- 
out the Empire is indisputable and unquestioned. It is true that in Great 
Britain the royal prerogative has latterly fallen into disuse, but it is alto- 
gether a mistake to infer that the power of the Crown to reject laws has 
consequently ceased to exist. As a constituent factor in legislation, the 
royal authority still remains : but the constitutional exercise of that pre- 
rogative makes the machinery practically invisible. In respect to the 
colonies, however, the royal veto is not a dormant power, for the obvious 
reason that no colonial legislative body is competent to enact a law which 
is at variance with, or repugnant to, any Imperial statute which extends in 
its operation to any particular colony. 

As a natural corollary to the colonial development of Victoria's reign, 
the royal representation itself has undergone somewhat radical changes; 
and while the office of the Governor-General to-day is not less regal or 
magnificent than in pre-confederation times, the complete evolution of a 
responsible government — "an image and transcript of the British Constitu- 
tion," in the words of Lord Durham — has left the viceroyal functions more 
clearly defined and better understood than they were in the fifties. From 
Sir Charles Metcalfe to Lord Dufferin is a long step in Canadian constitu- 
tional history, although it is a short space by the calendar. 

385 



386 QUEEN'S REPRESENTATIVES IN CANADA. 

Besides special administrators, Queen Victoria was represented in 
Canada by sixteen Governors-General, as follows : 

Lord Durham. 

Sir John Colborne (Administrator). 

Poulett Thompson (Lord Sydenham). 

Sir Charles Bagot. 

Sir Charles Metcalfe (Lord Metcalfe). 

Lord Cathcart. 

Lord Elgin. 

Sir Edmund Head. 

Viscount Monck. 

Lord Lisgar. 

Lord DufTerin. 

The Marquis of Lome (Duke of Argyl). 

Lord Lansdowne. 

Lord Stanley of Preston (Earl of Derby). 

Lord Aberdeen. 

Lord Minto. 
Lord Durham's Report contains the following incisive description of the 
policy which prevailed at Victoria's accession regarding the vice-regal 
appointment : "Instead of selecting a Governor with an entire confidence 
in his ability to use his local knowledge of the real state of affairs in the 
colony in a manner which local observation and practical experience best 
prescribe to him, it has been the policy of the Colonial Department, not only 
at the outset to instruct a Governor as to the general policy which he was 
to carry into effect, but to direct him by instructions, sometimes very pre- 
cise, as to the course which he is to pursue in every important particular of 
his administration. In this way, the real vigor of the Executive has been 
essentially impaired, distance and delay have weakened the force of its 
decisions; and the colony has, in every crisis of danger and almost every 
detail of local government, felt the mischief of having its executive authority 
exercised on the other side of the Atlantic." 

The modification of that policy in the course of a single reign has been 




QUEEN ALEXANDRA'S (Wh.. P„.c.ss „, W.„s, VISIT TO THE HOSPITAL 

SHIP AT SOUTHAMPTON. "ust-HAL 




1-1 

<: 

h 
>— « 

CO 

o 

DC 
H 



C/3 

p— I 

Q 
O 

C/3 

Q 

Q 
Z 

o 
o 
o 

C/3 

o 
u 



p«5 
o 



z 



QUEEN'S REPRESENTATIVES IN CANADA. 389 

considerable, but, like every other element in the British or Canadian Con- 
stitution, its transformation has been almost imperceptible. In fact, tech- 
nically, the functions of the sovereign's representative have changed very 
slightly : the Governor-General is still appointed by letters-patent under the 
great seal, and supplied with "royal instructions." But to-day, even royal 
instructions are construed with a due regard for the unwritten as well as for 
the written articles of a colonial constitution. As long ago as 1838, Lord 
Durham found that the constitutional- rights of a striving colony could not 
be transgressed even by a Whig of the Whigs. And indeed, it is quite 
remarkable that Lord Durham should have possessed such clear views as to 
the manner in which a colony should be governed, and himself have failed, 
in practice, to effect that compromise which Professor Goldwin Smith 
describes as the decisive suggestion of his Report. Lord Durham had 
advised the home government as follows: "We are not now to consider 
the policy of establishing representative government in the North American 
Colonies. That has been irrevocably done, and the experiment of depriving 
the people of their present constitutional power is not to be thought of. To 
conduct the government harmoniously in accordance with its established 
principles is now the business of its rulers; and I know not how it is possible 
to secure that harmony in any other way than by administering the govern- 
ment on those principles that have been perfectly efficacious in Great 
Britain. I would not impair a single prerogative of the Crown; on the con- 
trary, I believe that the interests of the people of these colonies require the 
protection of prerogatives which have not hitherto been exercised. But the 
Crown must on the other hand submit to the necessary consequence of rep- 
resentative institutions; and if it has to carry on the government in unison 
with a representative body it must be content to carry it on by means of 
those in whom that representative body has confidence." 

Egerton describes the Durham Report as the most valuable document 
in the English language on the subject of colonial policy; and few Cana- 
dians entertain anything but respect for memory of the administrator whose 
brilliant essay did so much for our constitution. As has been suggested, 
Lord Durham's practices were not as commendable as his theories : and the 



390 QUEEN'S REPRESENTATIVES IN CANADA. 

attacks made upon him by Lord Lyndhiirst, Lord Brougham, and the Duke 
of WelHngton left little to the imagination. Mr. Poulett Thompson was 
chosen as Lord Durham's successor; and succeeded in carrying out, after a 
fashion, the compromise which the Durham Report had suggested. Poulett 
Thompson had been a member of the British House of Commons, a business 
man of prodigious energy; and the government of Canada was to tax both 
his best effort and resource. The instructions given by Lord John Russell 
put him in the difficult position of one who reigned but did not govern; 
and Poulett Thompson wrote back, defining his own views as follows: 'T 
have told the people plainly that as I cannot get rid of responsibility to the 
Home Government, I will place no responsibility in the Council; that they 
are a Council for the Governor to consult, but no more. Either the Gov- 
ernor is the Sovereign or the Minister. If the first, he may have Ministers, 
but he cannot be responsible to the Government at home, and all colonial 
government becomes impossible. He must therefore be the Minister, in 
which case he cannot be under the control of men in the colonies." 

Neither was the position of the Governor very clear to some of the 
politicians of Canada, as is evidenced by a speech in which Mr. Draper, a 
prominent Conservative of the time, said "that he looked upon the Governor 
as having a mixed character; firstly, as being the representative of royalty, 
and secondly, as being one of Her Majesty's government and responsible to 
the mother country for the faithful discharge of the duties of his station, a 
responsibility which he could not avoid by saying that he took the advice 
of this man or of that man." 

Mr. Thompson's great service to the country was the bringing about of 
the union of the two provinces. Upper and Lower Canada. No great 
opposition to the union was offered in Lower Canada, but in Upper Canada 
it required all of the Governor's great tact and judgment to overcome the 
difficulties thrown in his way by the Family Compact, which did not like 
the idea of losing power in its native province. Ultimately, the Act of 
Union was passed: and for his services, Poulett Thompson was rewarded 
with a peerage. But Lord Sydenham never modified his views as to the 
meaning of responsible government in the colonies; and to avert the diffi- 



QUEEN'S REPRESENTATIVES IN CANADA. 391 

ctilty of an adverse council he plunged boldly into politics and by his own 
personal influence carried to victory the party which sided with him. This 
was indeed a skilful method of eliminating oppo-sition to his government — 
but how far from our present system ! 

In the meantime, Lord John Russell and the Liberals had lost office, 
and Lord Sydenham's successor was named by a Conservative government 
in England. But the administration of Sir Charles Bagot, who was sent out 
in 1 84 1, was not remarkable for any change of poHcy, except that Bagot was 
more disposed than his predecessor to give the system of responsible gov- 
ernment a fairer construction, which smoothed the way both for himself and 
for colonial statesmen. It is worthy of note, however, that it was during 
Sir Charles Bagot's term of office that the first Reform ministry of Canada 
came into power, its leaders being Baldwin and Lafontaine. Mr. Lafontaine 
was an ardent French-Canadian, but unhke his friend Papineau he had not 
gone the length of rebellion. The sympathetic administration of Bagot 
was cut short by his death in 1843. 

But the concihating rule of Bagot was far from satisfying the auto- 
cratic Lord Stanley who, under the new administration, became Colonial 
Secretary. To fill Bagot's place, Stanley chose a man after his own heart, 
Sir Charles Metcalfe. Metcalfe had reached high eminence in the East 
Indian Service, had been sent as envoy to the court of Ranjit Singh, and 
had been successively Governor of Hindustan and of Jamaica. This experi- 
ence, as may easily be seen, was no fit training for the governor of a colony 
whose people had quite decided to manage their own affairs. Accordingly, 
Metcalfe was not long in precipitating a conflict with the Reformers who 
constituted his Council, and who had a strong following in the Assembly. 
He claimed the right to make appointments to government offices, such as 
registrarships and shrievalties; but his advisers objected to this view on the 
ground that they were responsible to the people for all such appointments, 
and therefore should recommend the persons to be appointed. The Gov- 
ernor would not yield, and as Lord Stanley fully approved his course, Bald- 
win, Lafontaine, and all but one member of the Executive Council resigned. 
For some time, Metcalfe tried to govern vv'ithout a ministry, as the Con- 



392 QUEEN'S REPRESENTATIVES IN CANADA. 

servatives were not strong enough in the Assembly to form a government. 
At length, Mr. Draper was persuaded to take office and, forming a make- 
shift ministry, he appealed to the country. In the campaign that followed, 
Metcalfe, like Lord Sydenham before him, threw himself into the contest; 
and his critics have said that he left nothing undone that would secure the 
election of the party pledged to support him. By these remarkable tactics 
on the part of a viceroy, a small majority was secured : but Metcalfe soon 
afterward died — and with him died monarchical government in Canada. 

About this time, the boundary question threatened to make trouble 
between the United States and Canada; and this prospect doubtless had 
much to do with the appointment of the Earl of Cathcart as successor to 
Sir Charles Metcalfe. Cathcart came of a family of soldiers, and was himself 
a man of high military reputation: but happily, diplomacy was not exhausted 
in the territorial controversy, and his two years' administration was undis- 
turbed and uneventful. 

"It is not the least of Lord Grey's services to his country," wrote an 
Englishman, not long ago, "that he should have selected Lord Elgin, at the 
time a political opponent, for the government of Canada." That was in 
1846; and the succeeding eight years, which cover the administration of 
one of Canada's most distinguished governors, is an important period in 
Canadian history. 

James Bruce, Earl of Elgin and Kincardine in the peerage of Scotland, 
was born in 181 1. He was educated at Eton and Oxford, where, curiously 
enough, he had as companions and rivals his younger predecessors in the 
office of Viceroy of India, Dalhousie and Canning. Mr. Gladstone was also 
one of his juniors at both school and college, and recalls the circumstance 
that it was from young Bruce he "first learned that Milton had written any 
prose." Before he succeeded to the peerage. Lord Elgin sat in the House 
of Commons for Southampton, and in that time became attached to con- 
stitutional principles. He began his official career in 1842 as Governor of 
Jamaica, and during an administration of four years he succeeded in 
winning the respect of all classes. In 1846 he was appointed Governor- 
General of Canada, and, as was becoming in the son-in-law of Lord Durham, 



QUEEN'S REPRESENTATIVES IN CANADA. 393 

Elgin set about deliberately and earnestly to give "a real and effective vindi- 
cation of Lord Durham's memory and proceedings." The success that 
attended his efforts is still gratefully remembered. Alike from his political 
experience in England and his life in Jamaica, Lord Elgin had learned that 
safety lay in acting as the moderator of all parties, while applying fearlessly 
the constitutional principles of the mother country to each difficulty as it 
arose. In this, his frank and genial manners also aided him powerfully. 

On his arrival in Canada, Lord Elgin found a bitter party conflict in 
progress. The Draper ministry was weak and tottering to its fall. Its 
opponents were led by Baldwin and Lafontaine, and the country was dis- 
quieted by an agitation over the "Rebellion Losses Bill," and by a demand 
from the ultramontanes for a different policy with regard to the Clergy 
Reserves. The Rebellion Losses Bill was a measure intended to make 
good to the Loyalists of Upper Canada the losses which they had sustained 
in 1837-8. The Draper Government temporized with the question, and, 
failing to satisfy the claims which the Lower Canadians were also making, it 
was defeated at the polls in 1849. The Baldwin-Lafontaine Government 
again come into ofBce, and in presenting the Rebellion Losses Bill the 
Reformers made it a still more sweeping measure, proposing to pay, as well, 
a large sum to injured Loyalists in Lower Canada. At once a great outcry 
was raised that rebels were to be paid as well as Loyalists, and intense excite- 
ment prevailed. Nevertheless, the bill passed both houses, and was assented 
to by Lord Elgin, who felt it his duty to act on the advice of his Ministry, 
supported as it was by a large majority in Parliament. This course did not 
please the opponents of the bill, and riots ensued in Montreal and Toronto. 
In the former city. Parliament was in session; and an infuriated mob broke 
in, drove out the members, and ended by setting the Parliament Buildings 
on fire. Lord Elgin's life was put in some danger, and it was to this occa- 
sion that Carlyle unfairly alluded in his Latter Day Pamphlets, when he 
wrote: "Majesty's Chief Governor in fact seldom appearing, except to 
receive the impact of a few rotten eggs on occasion, and then duck in again 
to his personal contemplations." Lord Elgin asked to be recalled, but the 
Home Government commended his actions, and refused his request. 



304 QUEEN'S REPRESENTATIVES IN CANADA. 

The period of Lord Elgin's administration was unfortunately a period 
of commercial depression, consequent upon the adoption of Free Trade in 
England in 1846, which deprived Canada of any advantage in the British 
market. Fortunately, however, this depression was much offset by the 
negotiation in 1854 of a Reciprocity Treaty with the United States, which 
the tact and wisdom of Lord Elgin mainly secured. Other eventful features 
of the Elgin administration were, the building of railways in Upper Canada, 
and the adoption of a uniform rate of postage throughout Canada. 

The Letters and Journals of Lord Elgin contain many evidences of his 
perspicuity and statecraft, and when events have so abundantly borne out 
his optimism, it is pleasant to quote the following excerpt from a letter in 
which he touches upon the Canadian race question: "Let them feel that 
their religion, their habits, their prepossessions, their prejudices if you will, 
are more considered and respected here than in other portions of this vast 
continent, and who will venture to say that the last hand which waves the 
British flag on American ground may not be that of a French-Canadian?" 

Lord Elgin left Canada in 1854, destined for great things. Falmerston 
sent him as special envoy to China in 1856, and two years later he was 
despatched to Japan. The fruit of those two missions was the Treaty of 
Tientsin, and the Treaty of Yeddo. Then finally. Lord Elgin reached the 
summit of his political career in his appointment as Viceroy of India, an 
administration cut short by his death in 1863. 

It is to be observed that an increasing and more sympathetic interest 
in the perfecting of responsible government was taken by the successive 
Governors-General. Flenceforth the old regime of bureaucratic interfer- 
ence was at an end. But Canada had still some distance to go before finding 
an absolutely harmonious system of government. Sir Edmund Head, who 
succeeded Lord Elgin in 1854, thus describes the complexities of Canadian 
politics during his administration — and it will be noticed that the Governor- 
General is not lacking in enthusiasm — "If it is difificult for any statesmen to 
steer their way amid the mingled interest and conflicting opinions of 
Catholic and Protestant, Upper and Lower Canadian, French and English, 
Scotch and Irish, constantly crossing and thwarting one another; it is prob- 



QUEEN'S REPRESENTATIVES IN CANADA. 395 

ably to the action of these very cross-interests and these conflicting opinions 
that the whole united Province will, under Providence, in the end, owe its 
liberal policy and its final success. In such circumstances, constitutional 
and Parliamentary government cannot be carried on except by a vigorous 
attention to the reasonable demands of all races and of all religious 
interests." 

At the passing of the Act of Union, Lower Canada had a larger popu- 
lation, greater wealth, and a smaller public debt than Upper Canada; but 
within twenty-five years the relative importance of the provinces was 
reversed. Accordingly, the cry, ''Representation by Population," had its 
origin in Upper Canada, where it was made the political platform of the 
advanced Reformers headed by Mr. George Brown. Mr. John A. Mac- 
donald and Mr. George Cartier, the heads of the Conservative party, opposed 
themselves to the proposed alteration of the Constitution, and the political 
battles of the next few years raged about this question of representation in 
the House of Assembly. Several administrations were defeated in the years 
between 1858 and 1864, and finally it became evident that some change in 
the constitution must take place if harmony was to be preserved in the 
central government. In 1864 a political dead-lock was reached, and the 
only way out of the difliculty was a coalition ministry which had for its pur- 
pose the Confederation of the provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, and 
if possible also the Maritime Provinces. It so happened that the Maritime 
Provinces themselves were discussing Confederation, and it had been 
arranged that a conference of their delegates should meet at Charlottetown, 
P. E. I., in September, 1864. The Canadian Government sought and gained 
permission to have representatives at that meeting. A second conference 
was held in Quebec, and there preliminary terms for the Confederation of 
the provinces were agreed upon. In 1866 the delegates met in London and 
drafted a Bill of Confederation, and this bill finally passed the Imperial 
Parliament and received the Royal assent on the 29th of March, 1867, under 
the name of the British North America Act. It came into force on the first 
of July, 1867, which has been since commemorated as Dominion Day. 

The Queen's representative during this eventful period was Viscount 



396 QUEEN'S kEPRESENTATIVES IN CANADA. 

Monck, who thus became the first Governor-General of the Dominion of 
Canada, under which title the confederated provinces (Ontario, Quebec, 
Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick) were known. 

We have reached a point at which it is expedient to define the office and 
functions of the Sovereign's representative in Canada. This technical 
description has been left designedly till now, so as not to violate the order 
of time. The precise place which the Governor-General occupies in the 
Canadian Constitution is of later evolution than the British North America 
Act, although naturally it is based upon that statute. 

In 1875 a circular setting forth the form of appointment and authority 
of the Governor-General was despatched to all the British colonies, invit- 
ing suggestions for such alterations as might appear to them to be specially 
advisable in the case of a particular colony. In Canada the matter was con- 
sidered by a sub-committee of the Privy Council, and important amend- 
ments were proposed in which it was contended that Canada, as a 
confederated Dominion with representative institutions, was entitled to "the 
fullest freedom of political government." As a foundation principle neces- 
sary to be asserted and maintained in any instrument which might be issued 
for the purpose of defining the powers of a Governor-General, Hon. Edward 
Blake (who was then Minister of Justice) contended that it ought to be 
clearly understood that "as a ruler, the Governor-General does and must 
act through the agency, and upon the advice of his Ministers; and Ministers 
must be responsible for such action, save only in the rare instances in which, 
owing to the existence of substantial Imperial, as distinguished from 
' Canadian, interests, it is considered that full freedom of action is not vested 
in the Canadian people." 

For the further elaboration of this principle, Mr. Blake was despatched 
to England to confer with Lord Carnarvon, and, in 1877, the Colonial 
Secretary transmitted to the Governor-General drafts of Letters Patent con- 
stituting the office of the Queen's representative in Canada, of royal instruc- 
tions to accompany the same, and of a commission appointing a 
Governor-General. Lord Carnarvon intimated that these instruments had 
been expressly framed to meet the views of the Canadian Ministers. These 



QUEEN'S REPRESENTATIVES IN CANADA. 397 

drafts, after some further slight alteration, were accepted in November, 
1877, and they constitute the present authority of the Governor-General. 
On the floor of the Imperial House of Commons, Sir Michael Hicks-Beach 
thus alluded to the instruments: "But while the revised and amended 
formularies, since promulgated for the regulation of the office of the Gov- 
ernor-General of Canada, have been framed in accordance with the actual 
political relations of these colonies to the mother country, it is important 
to observe that they do not abate or relinquish one iota of the rightful 
supremacy of the Crown, as the same may be constitutionally exercised in 
any part of the Queen's dominions upon the advice of responsible Minis- 
ters." 

A learned discussion of the functions of the Governor-General is to be 
found in Todd's "Parliamentary Government in the Colonies." Clement 
more briefly describes his position as follows: "The Governor-General 
occupies a dual position. He is one of the Imperial Executive staff as well 
as the Executive head of the Dominion. In the former capacity, he is sub- 
ject to the Imperial authority, which extends to all those subject matters 
which are within the category of matters of Imperial concern, controlled 
by Imperial legislation. In regard to such matters, his actions are regu- 
lated by instructions, general or specific, received from his official superior 
at home, or by Imperial statutes. In his capacity as Executive head of the 
Dominion, he acts by and with the advice of the Queen's Privy Council, 
and is, in the exercise of his executive authority in relation to matters 
within the legislative competence of the Dominion Parliament, subject to 
the control of that body." 

The medium of communication between the Sovereign and her repre- 
sentative is the Secretary of State for the Colonies; and the Governor- 
General is likewise the only channel of communication for all representa- 
tions of a public or private character, made to the Imperial authorities. So 
fixed is this latter rule, that all letters, memorials, etc., not so received, are 
referred back to the Governor-General for verification. "He constitutes," 
says Herman Merivale, a Permanent Under Secretary of State for the 
Colonies, "the only political link connecting the colony with the mother 



398 QUEEN'S REPRESENTATIVES IN CANADA. 

country;" and Lord Elgin, in a private letter to Earl Grey, amplified that 
description when he wrote: "The office of the Governor tends to become, 
in the most emphatic sense of the term, the link which connects the mother 
country and the colony; and his influence the means by which harmony of 
action between the local and Imperial authorities is to be preserved." 

Although the Governor-General's functions have not been herein 
detailed, it is perhaps clear that his office is not a mere parade, but that, on 
the contrary, the Sovereign's representative fills an important and necessary 
place in the Canadian Constitution. It but remains to touch briefly upon 
the administration of the last group of Queen Victoria's representatives in 
Canada. 

Lord Lisgar succeeded Viscount Monck as the second Governor-Gen- 
eral of the Confederated provinces, and after an uneventful term of office 
was succeeded, in 1872, by the Earl of Dufferin, perhaps the most distin- 
guished of Canadian Viceroys. Lord Dufferin was born in 1826, and 
succeeded to the peerage at the age of fifteen. He was educated at Eton 
and Oxford. From 1849 to 1852 he was Lord in Waiting on Queen Vic- 
toria. He subsequently served as Under Secretary of State for War, and 
in the same capacity at the Indian office. In i860 he went on his first 
important diplomatic mission — Commissioner of the Crown to Syria, 
entrusted with the settlement of the difficuUies between the Mohammedans 
and Christians He accomplished this delicate mission with signal success, 
not only arranging the Turkish troubles, but bringing about a modus 
vivendi between the French and the warlike Druses. Soon afterwards, he 
was offered the Governorship of Bombay, but declined it on account of his 
mother's health. His appointment as the Queen's representative in Canada 
was made at the instance of Mr. Gladstone; for Lord Dufferin was a Liberal 
in English politics. 

The six years of his administration were marked, from time to time, by 
viceroyal progresses throughout the Dominion, and the social life of 
Canada, during this period was exceedingly brilliant. "Wherever he had 
been," writes a Canadian chronicler, "he had left behind him a reputation 
such as no previous Governor-General had ever gained. The splendid style 



QUEEN'S REPRESENTATIVES IN CANADA. 399 

of the Earl of Elgin had been eclipsed; the magnificence of Lord Syden- 
ham's entertainments had been more than surpassed. Lord Dufferin won 
all hearts from the very first. * * * With every successive step his 
popularity increased, and when he reached Ottawa, in the declining days 
of a delightful Indian summer, the whole city rose to meet and welcome 
him once more. "^ * ^^ Here, as in Quebec, he inaugurated a series of 
princely entertainments such as Ottawa had never seen before. The dull 
capital became even gayer than Halifax, which up to this time enjoyed the 
reputation of being the most fashionable and aristocratic city on the con- 
tinent." 

But apart from its social aspect, the Dufferin regime was a remarkable 
period in Canadian annals. British Columbia had entered Confederation 
on the understanding that an all-rail route should be built from Ontario to 
the Pacific within ten years. Many thought such a bargain could not be 
carried out, as the time was too short and the cost too great. The elections 
of 1872 were fought mainly around this issue, and resulted in a majority for 
the Government (Sir John A. Macdonald's). In 1873 the Huntington Reso- 
lutions charged the government with the negotiation of a corrupt bargain 
for the construction of the Canadian Pacific, and the publication of certain 
letters bearing upon the matter threw the country into the most intense 
excitement. A fierce struggle in Parliament ensued, and the government 
resigned. During this critical period the wisdom and tact of Lord Dufferin 
were of great service to the country. British Columbia threatened seces- 
sion, but the arbitration of Lord Carnarvon, then Colonial Secretary, dissi- 
pated the cause of strife over the Pacific railway. 

At the expiration of the Earl of Dufiferin's term of service, in 1878, a 
joint address was presented to him by both Houses of Parliament which 
bore testimony to the ripe wisdom, experience, and abilities displayed by 
that accompHshed statesman. Special mention was made of his efforts and 
liberality in fostering literature, art, and industrial pursuits, and of the ines- 
timable benefit derived from the eloquent manner in which Lord Dufferin 
was wont to bring the resources and future prospects of Canada to public 
notice. In conveying to the Earl of Dufferin Queen Victoria's congratu- 



400 QUEEN'S REPRESENTATIVES IN CANADA. 

lations, Sir Michael Hicks-Beach, then Colonial Secretary, said His Lordship 
"had done much to strengthen and deepen in the hearts of the Canadian 
people the spirit of loyalty and devotion to the British Crown and Empire, 
of which there had been so many gratifying indications." 

November 25 th, 1878, was an historic day for the city of 
Halifax. On that day, a cheering population, recruited by visitors from all 
parts of the Dominion, welcomed the Queen's daughter, the Princess 
Louise, and her husband, the Marquis of Lome, who had been appointed 
Lord Dufferin's successor. The years of Lord Lome's term of office are not 
specially characterized, except as showing the devotion of Canadians to Her 
Majesty's family. Social hfe naturally had a fillip, basking as it did in the 
very presence of royalty. 

The administrations of Lord Stanley of Preston, Lord Aberdeen, and 
Lord Minto constitute contemporary history, and their features are known 
to every one. It is perhaps too soon, therefore, to properly estimate the 
contributions which these Governors-General of to-day and yesterday have 
made to our national and Imperial development, and it may sui^ce to say 
that this last group of Sovereign representatives have preserved the regal 
traditions of their predecessors, socially and politically, and that in their 
hands the office of the Governor-General of the Dominion of Canada has 
become one of the very highest places in the Empire. 



CHAPTER XXIV. 

The Prince of Wales' Visit to Canada — Embarkation at Plymouth, 10th July, 
I860 — Arrival at St. John's, Newfoundland — Reception at Quebec — Driving 
Last Rivet of Victoria Tubular Bridge at Montreal — Laying First Stone 
of Ottawa Parliament Buildings — Trouble at Kingston — Brilliant Levee 
and Grand Ball at Toronto — Laying First Stone of Brock's Monument — 
Visit to New York. 

IN 1858 a resident of Toronto named Norris circulated a petition to the 
Queen requesting her to confer authority on His Royal Highness, the 

Prince of Wales, or some other member of the royal family, to visit 
Canada and open the Toronto Crystal Palace. Mr. Norris took this petition 
in person to London instead of forwarding it through the Governor of 
Canada. This mistake led to its being treated with scant consideration. 

The next year the Canadian Parliament, then in session at Toronto, 
decided upon an address to Her Majesty asking her to visit Canada the 
following year and open the Victoria bridge across the St. Lawrence River 
at Montreal. The address was moved in the assembly by the Hon. Mr. 
Cartier, Premier, and in the Legislative Council by the Hon. P. M. Van 
Koughnet. It was decided that the petition should be presented to Her 
Majesty by the Hon. Henry Smith, Speaker of the Assembly. Mr. Smith 
proceeded to London on his mission and was courteously received. 

Early in i860 Governor Head received a letter from the Duke of New- 
castle, Colonial Secretary, regretting that the Queen was compelled to 
decline compliance with this loyal invitation, as the distance was too great 
and the absence would be too prolonged. However, Her Majesty expressed 
the hope that, when the time for the opening of the bridge was fixed it 
would be possible for H. R. H. the Prince of Wales to attend the ceremony 
in her name. She also expressed her sincere desire that the young Prince, 
on whom the Crown of the Empire might devolve, should have the oppor- 
tunity of seeing the Canadian portion of her dominions. This announce- 

401 



402 PRINCE OF WALES' VISIT TO CANADA, 

ment was well received in Canada, and preparations for the visit were at 
once commenced. 

The Prince of Wales, now Edward VII., was nineteen years of age when 
he visited America. He was a jolly young Englishman, full of life and spirit, 
and he made his tour an event to be remembered by very many people. He 
danced and laughed with the prettiest ladies of Canada and the United 
States, and there are yet living a number of stately matrons who remember 
his gallantry. Ever since this visit the Prince has had a warm corner in his 
heart for both Canadians and Americans, and he has personal friends and 
admirers in both countries. 

On the loth of July, i860, the Prince embarked at Plymouth on board 
H. M. S. Hero, one of the old "wooden walls of England." The suite 
accompanying His Royal Highness were : The Duke of Newcastle, Secretary 
of State for the Colonies; the Earl of St. Germains, Lord Steward of Her 
Majesty's Household; Major-General the Hon. R. Bruce, Governor to the 
Prince; Major Teesdale, R. A., Captain George Gray, Equerries; and Dr. 
Ackland. The slow ships of those days occupied twelve days in sailing from 
Plymouth to St. John's, Newfoundland, and it was the 22nd of July when 
that port was reached. The Prince was accorded a brilliant reception. The 
town was gaily decorated, and gave itself up unreservedly to the jollities of 
the hour. 

Eight days later, three guns fired in quick succession from the citadel 
at Halifax, told the people of that city that the Royal Squadron was sailing 
up the harbor. Six batteries saluted the Royal Flag with salutes of twenty- 
one guns. The Prince and his suite landed about noon at the Dockyard, 
where were assembled the leading dignitaries of the colony — for Nova 
Scotia was not then a part of Canada. The f.r.^t to be introduced to the 
Prince was Plis Excellency, Governor Mulgrave, and after him the Mayor 
and Council of Halifax. The Mayor presented an address in which the 
Prince was welcomed as the son of the Queen and as "grandson of that 
illustrious Duke* whose memory is gratefully cherished as the warm and 



*The Duke of Kent was once in command of the garrison at Halifax. 



PRINCE OF WALES' VISIT TO CANADA. 403 

constant friend of Nova Scotia." The Prince rode on horseback at the head 
of a great procession through the brilliantly decorated streets, brilliant in 
spite of the rain which had fallen in the morning. Arriving at Government 
House, the members of the Legislature were presented and Premier Young 
read another address. Among the signatures to this were those of Joseph 
Howe and Adams G. Archibald. In the evening there was a state dinner 
and next morning a review of the garrison. Indian games were provided 
in the afternoon, giving the Prince his first view of the real red-man. In 
the evening three thousand persons attended a ball in his honor, his first 
Canadian partner — she may be called Canadian, even though it was seven 
years before Nova Scotia became a part of the Dominion — being Miss 
Young, a niece of the Premier. The next day the Prince witnessed a 
regatta, held a levee and dined with the officers of the garrison. 

On August 2nd, His Royal Highness, accompanied by the Governor 
and the members of the Legislature, left by special train for New Bruns- 
wick. They called at Windsor and at Hantsport. At the latter place the 
party embarked on board H. M. S. Styx and proceeded to St. John, where 
they arrived at ten o'clock at night. 

At daylight next morning the batteries thundered a welcome and the 
people of St. John hastened to catch a glimpse of the royal youth. He was 
received at the wharf by Governor Sutton and other officials and conducted 
to the house of the late Judge Chipman, which had been specially furnished 
for his reception. The firemen and societies made up for the fewness of the 
volunteers, and the route was lined with these and the anxious citizens. A 
levee was held in the Court House a little later, and among others two 
Indian chiefs were presented. In the evening the city was illuminated. It 
is said that some 25,000 visitors spent that night in St. John where there 
was accommodation for only a few hundreds. In spite of this there was 
neither row nor disturbance. 

In those days the railway did not run all the way up to Fredericton, the 
capital of the colony, and the Prince traveled most of the eighty miles by 
boat. At every little shanty village along the route, up and down, the 



404 PRINCE OF WALES' VISIT TO CANADA. 

people turned out to view the Forest Queen and her royal passenger. Flags 
were waved, bells rung, and muskets fired. 

At Fredericton the Prince was lodged at Government House, and the 
town held a jubilation in his honor. Next day he attended Divine service 
for the first time since reaching the New World, the Lord Bishop of Freder- 
icton preaching a suitable sermon in the Anglican Cathedral. On Monday 
the Government of New Brunswick presented an address, impressing upon 
the Prince that the people of that colony were descendants of the Loyalists 
of the American Revolutionary period. A levee was then held, and a public 
park inaugurated. In the evening there was the usual grand ball. 

From Fredericton the Prince returned to Windsor via St. John and 
Hantsport. From there he proceeded to Truro and Pictou, both towns 
giving him a generous demonstration of their loyalty and devotion. 

From Pictou the Prince sailed on the Hero to Charlottetown, Prince 
Edward Island, the then smallest of the British colonies in North America, 
and now the smallest province in the Dominion. Here the usual luck of the 
trip was again experienced, and rain dampened everything. Governor 
Dundas received the Prince and conducted him to Government House. 
In the evening there was a general illumination and fireworks — and rain. 
Next day there was a levee. As in some other instances, the crowd was 
disappointed and only important personages presented by deceiving the 
public as to the hour at which it was to be held. There were more addresses 
and more replies. The preparation of the latter must have kept some person 
in the Prince's suite rather busy; several dozens had to be made every week 
during the tour, and each of course had to be different from all the others. 
Then followed a ball at the Provincial building, which was decorated and 
adorned with inscriptions. One of these is historical : 

Thy grandsire's name distinguishes this isle; 
We love thy mother's sway, and court her smile. 

On August nth the Prince again embarked on the Hero and the fleet 
sailed up the Gulf of St. Lawrence, bound for Canada. At Gaspe Basin 
they were met by the Governor and officials, who had come down from 




STATE BANQUET, DUBLIN CASTLE, IN HONOR OF QUEEN VICTORIA. 




IRISH PEASANTS HASTENING TO SEE THE QUEEN. 



PRINCE OF WALES' VISIT TO CANADA. 407 

Quebec in two steamers. It was on the morning of the 13th, in this beauti- 
ful basin, that the Prince was welcomed to the Province of Canada by Gov- 
ernor Head, the Hon. John Ross, President of the Executive Council, 
Premier Cartier, and other Ministers of the Crown. The whole fleet then 
started up the noble St. Lawrence, the route discovered by Cartier and won 
for Britain by the immortal Wolfe. Arriving at the mouth of the Saguenay 
the fleet turned north and passed into this beautiful tributary of the St. 
Lawrence. Pilots had been provided, but the Hero had unluckily picked 
up a pilot on the South Shore and went aground for lack of good direction. 
This caused a delay of a few hours and the transfer of the royal visitor to 
another steamer for the trip. This misfortune was followed by rain. Never- 
theless the famous cliffs of Eternity and Trinity were viewed in their 
magnificent and solitary grandeur, and the variegated beauties of the river 
duly explained and noted. The next day the party landed at the River Ste. 
Marguerite, some six leagues within the Saguenay, and the Prince was 
again welcomed at this isolated spot as he set foot for the first time on 
Canadian soil. Here the party dined in tents erected for the occasion, and 
then went sea-trout fishing. While the Prince was busily engaged in this 
sport, the tide arose quickly about his isolated position and cut him off from 
the shore. A Mr. Price, who was the director of refreshments for the occa- 
sion, waded out, mounted His Royal Highness upon his back, and carried 
him across the gully to safety. After luncheon there was a canoe ride up 
the Ste. Marguerite to the salmon pools. It was evening before these were 
reached and the fishing was a disappointment. One salmon was hooked, 
however, and the Prince played him for a time. Mr. Salmon not being a 
loyal subject, objected to the game and made good his escape. The return 
journey down the river was made in forty minutes, although the up journey 
had consumed three hours. The Prince will no doubt still have memories 
of that stirring canoe trip. 

On the evening of August 17th the fleet arrived off Quebec and came 
to anchor. This is said to have been a memorable evening, when several 
Canadian gentlemen of distinction enjoyed an unbended hour with the 
Prince, the Premier singing for His Royal Highness that famous French- 



408 PRINCE OF WALES' VISIT TO CANADA. 

Canadian song "A La Claire Fontaine," with its beautiful refrain, "J^^^^^^ 
je ne t'oublierai."* 

On Saturday, August i8th, the Prince ascended the heights of Quebec, 
but not as Wolfe climbed them when the gallant Montcalm held the rocky 
fortress. Three men of war — the Nile, Valorous and Styx — had arrived a 
few days before and assisted in the thunderous but peaceful welcome. The 
Prince was met on the landing by the Governor and the Canadian Ministers 
in all the glory of their blue and gold, and a more formal welcome was ten- 
dered him than those which had taken place at the mouth of the Ste. Mar- 
guerite and in the Bay of Gaspe. There were also present Lord Lyons, 
the British Ambassador at Washington; Lieutenant-General Sir W. Fen- 
wick Williams of Kars, Sir Allan McNab, Sir E. P. Tache, Mayor Langevin 
and various civil and military personages of more or less importance. The 
wharf was ornamented with a spruce-tree pavilion duly bannered and 
flagged, and here the Mayor, surrounded by the City Council, presented 
the usual address. And yet not usual, because it came from a French people 
anxious to show their loyalty to their Sovereign and country. The Prince 
replied that Her Majesty would be pleased to hear from their own lips that 
all differences of origin, language and religion were lost in one universal 
spirit of patriotism. 

On Sunday the Prince attended service in the Anglican Cathedral. On 
the Thursday following His Royal Highness presented the Cathedral with 
a handsome Bible bearing the royal arms on the cover and an inscription in 
his own handwriting. 

Monday was a rainy day, yet the Prince found enough dry hours to visit 
the beautiful Chaudiere Falls, about five miles up on the opposite side of 
the river. 

Tuesday was a busier day. A grand levee, an official dejeuner, a visit 
to the far-famed Montmorenci Falls, and a ball at which the Prince danced 
nearly every one of the twenty-five dances. the levee two Canadians 

kneeled to His Royal Highness and arose Sir Knights. These were the 



*And never can that love forget. 



PRINCE OF WALES' VISIT TO CANADA. 409 

Hon. Henry Smith, President of the Assembly, and the Hon. N. F. Belleaii, 
President of the Legislative Council. 

On Wednesday he visited Laval University, the Ursuline Convent, and 
the citadel. In the evening there was a grand display of fireworks on the 
beautiful esplanade, now known as DufTerin Terrace. 

The next day under a glorious sky, amid the strains of Rule Britannia 
and the farewell cheers of happy citizens, the Prince left on the Kingston 
for Montreal. That night was spent at Three Rivers. The next night was 
spent near Montreal, for it was raining and it was thought best to postpone 
the triumphal entry. 

Shortly after nine o'clock next day forty thousand persons saw the 
Prince land at the Montreal docks. The Mayor presented an address and 
a procession followed, introducing His Royal Highness to the city of wealth 
and narrow streets which lies at the base of Mount Royal. About eleven 
o'clock the Prince opened the Crystal Palace. 

At one o'clock on that day the Prince performed the task which was the 
immediate object of his visit to Canada — the opening of the Victoria bridge 
— the link which united Western Canada with Eastern Canada and per- 
mitted the products of the West to be carried to the Atlantic when the St. 
Lawrence was closed by a rigorous climate. The Prince opened this mag- 
nificent piece of engineering work in the name of the Queen, terming it "a 
work unsurpassed by the grandeur of Egypt or of Rome, as it is unrivaled 
by the inventive genius of these days of ever-active enterprise." 

Hon. John Ross, President of the Grand Trunk Railway, and other 
ofificials attended the Prince to a scaffolding erected at the Montreal end 
of the bridge. Mr. James Hodges, the builder, handed him a wooden mallet 
and silver trowel. With the trowel the Prince spread the mortar and the 
last stone of the masonry was lowered into place. The band struck up the 
National Anthem and that part of the ceremony was concluded. 

The royal party then proceeded in a car to the central arch of the bridge, 
where the last rivet was driven. Then followed a magnificent luncheon 
given by the Railway Company, at which the Prince's health was drunk 



410 PRINCE OF WALES' VISIT TO CANADA. 

with an enthusiasm whicn can never be surpassed by any body of men the 
Empire has produced. 

That evening the police of Montreal proved themselves the equal of their 
more famous London prototypes. The Prince drove out in a carriage 
incognito to view the town's illuminations. Orders had been issued that no 
carriages should drive down the narrow decorated streets. When the 
Prince's carriage drove up a policeman held up his hand, and, though 
informed that it was the Prince's carriage, stood by his orders. The Prince 
did not drive down that street. Perhaps, however, the Prince yielded in 
order to avoid the publicity of which he had already experienced a great 
deal. 

It is hardly possible, nor is it advisable, to follow the Prince farther in 
detail. The remainder of his trip through Canada was much like the part 
already described, with here and there variations. 

There were occasional rains, there were many more loyal and carefully 
prepared addresses, there were levees and balls, luncheons and dinners. The 
merriment and celebration moved with the Prince's party, and where it was 
the people shouted and were glad. At the various places where he stayed, 
rooms were specially furnished for the occasion, and thousands of dollars 
were spent on decorations thought worthy of this royal personage. His 
carriages were newly upholstered, his bedroom suites carved with his crest, 
chairs and lounges intended for his use were upholstered in special and 
costly fabrics, pavilions were erected for the great occasions, crimson, gold 
and purple draperies hung wherever he visited or was lodged — nothing that 
a loyal and patriotic people could think of was considered too extravagant 
for the occasion. As has been indicated the greatest event in the Prince's 
visit to Canada was the opening of the Victoria bridge. The next in impor- 
tance was the laying of the comer-stone of the new Parliament Buildings at 
Ottawa. 

For some time the honor of being the Capital of Canada fell to Montreal. 
In 1849 an excited mob, displeased with Lord Elgin's conduct in signing 
the Rebellion Losses Bill, sacked and burned down the Parliament House. 
For this misconduct Montreal lost the honor of being the capital, and for 



PRINCE OF WALES' VISIT TO CANADA. 411 

a time Parliament was called at Toronto and Quebec alternately. This was 
found inconvenient, and in 1857 an address was presented to Her Majesty 
praying her to select a new seat of government. Early in 1858 she selected 
a village on the Ottawa known as Bytown (Ottawa), and her selection was 
approved by the Legislative Assembly of Canada. Plans for a magnificent 
new Parliament Building were at once prepared, and the work of construc- 
tion was begun in the fall of 1859. The Prince's visit to Canada was oppor- 
tune in this connection, and it was decided to ask him to lay the corner-stone 
This he did on the first day of September. 

His Royal Highness came up from Montreal by steamer, calling at 
several of the villages along the route. When opposite the Gatineau River, 
just below Ottawa, the party was met by a fleet of steamers and one hundred 
and fifty birch bark canoes. In the latter were 1,200 lumbermen and Indians 
attired in most picturesque costumes. With this escort he entered Ottawa, 
where he met with the usual reception and the usual addresses and the usual 
rain. 

At eleven o'clock, September ist, His Royal Highness and suite left 
the Victoria House for the site of the new buildings. Platforms had been 
erected for the occasion and a large crowd was present. The chief digni- 
taries of the Province stood within a railing which surrounded the spot, 
where the historic piece of Canadian marble was to be placed. The pro- 
ceedings were opened with prayer. The mortar was duly spread by the 
Prince and the stone deposited in its resting place, the Prince giving it 
three steadying knocks with a wooden mallet. After it had been inspected 
by the engineers. His Excellency the Governor-General, announced the 
work done by the words : "I proclaim the stone fairly and duly laid in this 
work." Three cheers were given for Her Majesty, the Prince of Wales, and 
the Governor, and the ceremony was over. 

In due time the Prince and his party left Ottawa by train and proceeded 
to Brockville, where the royal party embarked on the steamer Kingston, and 
took that charming trip through the Thousand Islands towards Kingston. 
Owing to the misunderstanding with regard to Orange decorations, the 
Prince did not land at Kingston or Belleville. At Cobourg he disembarked 



412 PRINCE OF WALES' VISIT TO CANADA. 

and from there proceeded inland as far as Peterborough. Returnmg to his 
boat the Prince proceeded to Toronto, with a short call at Port Hope. 

In Toronto, then as now the chief city in Ontario (then Upper Canada), 
the Prince received a magnificent reception, with the usual addresses, 
experienced the usual procession, attended one or two balls given in his 
honor, laid the foundation stone for a statue of the Queen which was never 
erected, and performed several other public functions. 

The most important ball was given to the Prince and his suite at the 
Crystal Palace, where His Royal Highness danced until after four in the 
morning. 

This part of the Prince's trip was made memorable by the misunder- 
standing with the Orangemen, to which reference has been already made. 
The Orange Order was very strong in the Province of Upper Canada, and 
being very loyal in sentiment, desired to do honor to the representative of 
the Sovereign. Accordingly arches were erected by the Order at Kingston, 
Belleville, and Toronto. The Roman Catholic inhabitants took some objec- 
tion to these decorations, and the matter was brought to the attention of 
the Duke of Newcastle, who was in charge of the Prince. He decided that 
a dispky of this nature on such an occasion was "likely to lead to religious 
feud and breach of the peace," and wrote Governor Head to that efifect. He 
also intimated that if such arches were found he should advise the Prince 
not to pass under them. The Governor informed the Mayor of Toronto 
and the Mayor of Kingston of the Duke's dictum. In spite of all protests 
the Orangemen raised their arches and appeared in full regalia at the Kings- 
ton landing. The Duke refused to allow the Prince to disembark, and while 
the boat was lying in the harbor wrote a letter to the Mayor strongly object- 
ing to these "symbols of religious and political organization." No amount 
of persuasion could move either the Duke or the Orangemen, consequently 
the Prince did not land. The events at Belleville followed similar lines, 
much to the disgust of the citizens and especially the ladies, who were thus 
deprived of the pleasure of seeing the Prince. 

At Toronto, fortunately, reason prevailed, and the Orangemen turned 
out without their regalia. Their arch had only one decoration to which 



PRINCE OF WALES' VISIT TO CANADA. 413 

objection could be taken — a transparency of William III., Prince of Orange. 
The pernickety Duke and his royal charge passed under the arch before 
this was noticed, much to the disgust of the former. The story is told of 
how the Duke went out in the evening to view the arch at close range. As 
he stood gazing at it the assembled crowd treated him to a liberal dose of 
groans and hisses. The only punishment he could inflict on the city was 
to compel the Mayor to apologize on the pain of being excluded from the 
various social functions which were to follow. The Mayor apologized, and 
his wife had the honor of sharing the opening dance at the great ball with 
the Prince. 

On Monday, September loth, the Prince took a short side trip from 
Toronto to Collingwood over the Northern Railway to see the famous 
Georgian Bay. At the various towns along the route enthusiastic crowds 
assembled to do him honor. 

Two days later the royal party proceeded to London. Great displays 
were made all along the line, arches, flags and evergreens being seen at 
every station. Addresses were presented at Guelph, Peterburg (in German), 
Stratford and London. At the latter point there was a procession and an 
evening illumination. Next day the party proceeded to Sarnia, where rep- 
resentatives from nearly all the Indian tribes of Upper Canada were among 
those to welcome the son of "The Great White Queen." One of the Ojib- 
way Indians read an address in his native tongue. In return the Prince 
presented each Chief with a large silver medal hung on a brightly-colored 
ribbon. After a short trip on the lake, the party returned to London, where 
they attended a ball in their honor. 

The Prince then proceeded via Woodstock, Paris and Brantford to view 
the famous Niagara Falls. That evening this natural wonder was gor- 
geously illuminated as if nature's awe-inspiring charms were not sufficient 
to impress royalty. Next day the celebrated Blondin crossed the deep 
chasm on a rope, carrying a man upon his back. He then walked back upon 
stilts to receive the congratulations and a well filled purse from the Prince. 

On Tuesday, the i8th, the Prince visited Queenston Heights, where 
Upper Canada's hero. Sir Isaac Brock, fell defending his country. About 



414 VISIT TO THE UNITED STATES. 

one hundred and fifty survivors of the War of 1812-14 were assembled here 
to do honor to the past and present. The Prince visited the famous monu- 
ment erected to do honor to General Brock, and afterwards laid the top 
stone of an obelisk erected to mark the spot where that brave soldier fell 
mortally wounded. It bears this inscription : 

Near this spot 

Major General 

Sir Isaac Brock, K. C. B., 

Provisional Lieutenant 
Governor of Upper Canada, 
Fell on the 13th of October, 1812, 
While advancing to repel 
The invading Enemy. 
After this ceremony the Prince proceeded to St. Catharines and Hamil- 
ton, a ball being given at the latter place. From here he left for Windsor, 
and crossed to Detroit to visit the United States. 

VISIT TO THE UNITED STATES. 

The reasons for the Prince's visit to the United States are explained by 
the following letter from the President : 
TO HER MAJESTY, QUEEN VICTORIA: 

I have learned from the public journals that the Prince of Wales is about 
to visit Your Majesty's North American Dominions. Should it be the inten- 
tion of His Royal Highness to extend his visit to the United States I need 
not say how happy I should be to give him a cordial welcome to Wash- 
ington. You may be well assured that everywhere in this country he will 
be greeted by the American people in such a manner as cannot fail to prove 
gratifying to Your Majesty. In this they will manifest their deep sense of 
your domestic virtues, as well as their convictions of your merits as a wise, 
patriotic and constitutional Sovereign. 

Your Majesty's most obedient servant, 

JAMES BUCHANAN. 
Washington, June 4, i860. 



VISIT TO THE UNITED STATES. 415 

Her Majesty replied that the Prince would return from Canada through 
the United States, and that she was pleased that he would have an oppor- 
tunity "to mark the respect which he entertains for the Chief Magistrate of 
a great and friendly state and kindred nation." She further informed the 
President that the Prince would travel in his country as Baron Renfrew. 
The Prince entered the United States at Detroit and was greeted by 
so vast a concourse of people that he had to gain his hotel by a side entrance. 
The whole city was illuminated and decorated, the river craft lighted with 
innumerable lamps. At Chicago his reception was just as enthusiastic and 
kindly. Between Chicago and St. Louis he stopped of¥ for a day's shoot- 
ing. Fourteen brace of quail and four rabbits were shot by the Prince. At 
on'L farm the proprietor stood on his porch and invited everybody to enter. 
"But not you, Newcastle," he cried; 'T have been a tenant of yours and 
have sworn that you shall never set foot on my threshold." Except for this 
incident the hunting was much enjoyed by everybody, and why should not 
a royal Prince of nineteen enjoy a day of rare sport as well as any other 
healthy-minded youth? 

At St. Louis the Prince opened the Western Academy of Arts and was 
welcomed at the Fair grounds by a large assembly of people. At Cincin- 
nati there was a similar reception and another ball, at which the Prince 
danced all night. But he was growing weary of crowds and rush, and the 
party was glad to reach Washington, then a very small and a very quiet 
city. Lord Lyons, the British Ambassador, introduced him to the Wash- 
ington authorities, and President Buchanan and his niece. Miss Harriet 
Lane, entertained him privately at the White House. There were two 
dinner parties and a levee. 

One of the notable events was the visit of the Prince to Mount Vernon 
on the Potomac. Here the Prince saw the home of the man who had dared 
his royal great-grandfather and the British armies, and had taught the 
British authorities at London that colonial self-esteem must be respected. 
The Prince also visited Washington's tomb and planted a chestnut tree as 
a memorial of his visit. 

The United States was then in the throes of the anti-slavery agitation. 



416 VISIT TO THE UNITED STATES. 

The Southern leaders foreseeing that the friendship of Great Britain might 
be vakiable in case of trouble, invited the Prince south. He visited Rich- 
mond, but was not well received by the common people. The party refused 
to proceed farther south, hurried back to Washington and proceeded to 
Baltimore and Philadelphia. Some day the historian may be able to 
chronicle the effect of this visit of the Prince to Richmond, for it possibly 
had something to do with holding Great Britain in the neutral attitude 
which she assumed during the subsequent struggle between the North and 
the South. 

At Philadelphia the Prince went in state to the Academy of Music, 
where the opera "Martha" was presented. It was at this place that His 
Royal Highness first heard Patti sing. The people of Montreal had brought 
her, then a girlish phenomenon, up from New York to sing for the Prince, 
but the party left that city before the full programme was worked out. 
Patti, it is said, shed tears of disappointment. At Philadelphia she sang 
divinely and made a great impression on the impressionable Prince. The 
acquaintance formed there became a permanent friendship. 

At New York, which the Prince reached by a revenue cutter which 
landed him at the Battery, the royal party was received by Mayor Wood 
and the militia of the city. The Mayor made an address of welcome, which 
is in strong contrast with the other addresses of the trip : 
"Your Royal Highness : 

"As Chief Magistrate of this city I welcome you here, and believe that 
I represent the entire population without exception." 

The Prince replied: 

"It affords me great pleasure to accept your hospitalities, which I have 
no doubt will be worthy of the great city of New York." 

After a review of the troops the City Hall was visited, and the Prince 
then drove up Broadway, which was lined with soldiers and an enthusiastic 
crowd, to the Fifth Avenue Hotel, where he had quarters. Perhaps the 
most notable event of the visit was the ball — certainly the most notable 
social event. About 3,000 persons were present, and, in spite of the fact 
that part of the special floor gave way, the Prince enjoyed himself until five 



VISIT TO THE UNITED STATES. 41*7 

a. m. The opening dance fell to the share of the wife of Governor Morgan 
of New York State. For the supper a special service of china and glass had 
been manufactured with the Prince's motto "Ich Dien" on every piece. 

The Prince then visited West Point and Albany and viewed the magnifi- 
cent scenery of the Hudson. From Albany he proceeded by rail to Boston, 
where he visited Harvard College, Mount Auburn Cemetery, Longfellow's 
home and Bunker Hill. There was another grand ball in Boston. It is 
said that after his visit to New York the Prince seemed listless. He and 
his party were tired by three months of receptions, cheers, and the bustle 
of traveling so many thousands of miles. Even Edward Everett's classical 
speech and Oliver Wendell Holmes' classical ode failed to move him. The 
latter was sung by school children to the tune "God Save the Queen." The 
first stanza runs : 

God bless our Father's Land, 

Keep her in heart and hand, 
One with our own. 

From all her foes defend. 

Be her brave people's friend. 

On all her realms descend. 
Protect her throne. 

At Portland the royal squadron was waiting and the Prince embarked 
amid the farewell cheers of the assembled Canadians and Americans. At 
4 130 p. m. on the 20th of October the Hero raised her anchors and set sail 
on the return voyage. The voyage was a long one, owing to a storm 
which drove them back from the English coast, and the people of England 
became very anxious. So anxious, indeed, that two warships were sent in 
search of the Hero. However, she arrived safely and the people of Eng- 
land breathed more freely again. The Queen mother was greatly delighted 
with the success of the first political mission of her eldest son and heir. 



CHAPTER XXV. 

Progress of Canada Under the Queen — Rebellion of 1837-38 in Progress — Lord 
Durham and His Famous Report — The Act of Union — Struggle for Respon- 
sible Government — Canada Given Control of Customs and Post Office — 
Confederation of the Provinces — Building of the Grand Trunk, Canadian 
Pacific and Intercolonial Railways — Addition of Manitoba and British 
Columbia — Development of Trade — Literary and Social Progress — Imperial 
Feeling. 

DURING the Queen's reign Canada has maintained her place as the 
leading self-governing colony of the Empire, and her wealth has 
increased a hundredfold. New provinces have been erected where, 
in 1837, there were only trees and wild animals and the unprogressive red- 
man. Towns and cities have sprung up and increased in size. Many miles 
of canals, thousands of miles of railways, and tens of thousands of miles of 
good wagon roads have been built, and the land is filled with the hum of 
commerce. Where in 1831 there were a million people there are now six 
million. In 1837 Canada's foreign trade was less than thirty million per 
year, now it is over three hundred million. In 1837 there were fifteen miles 
of railroad, now there are over seventeen thousand, with yearly earnings 
of over sixty millions of dollars. In 1837 British North America consisted 
of a half dozen isolated colonies without connection or sympathy. Now all 
these, with several new and important communities (but excepting New- 
foundland) are numbered under one government, with a growing unity of 
sympathy and national feeling, and blessed with a system of government — 
federal, provincial and municipal — which is unequalled anywhere. 

A PERIOD OF DEPRESSION. 

Those were black days in the Canadas (now Ontario and Quebec) and 
the other North American colonies when it was announced that William 
IV. of Great Britain and Ireland had been succeeded by his niece, Alex- 
andrina Victoria Guelph. On the 19th of June, 1837, the day before her 
succession to the throne. Sir Francis Bond Head met the Upper Canada Par- 

418 



A PERIOD OF DEPRESSION. 419 

liament in a special sessioii, wnich lasted about three weeks, and which had 
been called to relieve the banks from certain penalties which a severe com- 
mercial depression threatened to impose upon them. Specie payments had 
been suspended, business was paralyzed, and the banks of Lower Canada, 
Newfoundland and Nova Scotia had found it necessary to repudiate their 
habilities. But the banks of Upper Canada pursued a more honest and 
praiseworthy course and finally liquidated all claims. The main cause of 
the depression was lack of confidence, engendered by a commercial crisis in 
the United States. 

The political troubles of the time also affected the commercial condi- 
tions. In the first place there was little intercolonial trade in North 
/^merica. Newfoundland had little interest in the other colonies; Nova 
Scotia traded with New Brunswick, but neither New Brunswick nor Nova 
Scotia traded much with Canada. Each colony had its political troubles, 
although only in Canada did these lead to open rebellion. In the maritime 
colonies British connection was more highly valued, and even the extreme 
reformers hesitated to jeopardize that for the sake of more speedy reforms. 

By 1847, through the efiforts of her own reformers and with the help 
of Lord Durham, Lord Sydenham and Lord Elgin — three excellent Gov- 
ernors — Canada obtained home rule. The next year New Brunswick and 
Nova Scotia each gained the same boon. 

Since 1848 the North American colonists, being left to govern them- 
selves, have learned to exercise their powers in a conservative and careful 
manner. They have controlled their tariffs, postal system and other parts 
of the administration according to their ability, and have clearly proven 
that it is better for a colony to be governed by itself than by the Colonial 
Secretary in London. Canadian administrators and statesmen have 
exhibited those qualities of carefulness, broad-mindedness and astuteness 
which have been for the public advantage and for the best interests of 
Britain's possessions in North America. The governments of Queen Vic- 
toria gave up much to these colonies, but received in return a gratitude, a 
love and an allegiance which have strengthened the Empire and added 
much to its glory. 



420 FREEDOM OF TRADE. 

FREEDOM OF TRADE. 

In the Act of Union of 1840 it was enacted that nothing in that Act 
should prevent the ParHament of the United Kingdom from establishing 
regulations or prohibitions regarding trade, or for the imposing, levying 
or collecting duties for the regulation of navigation or for the regulation 
of the commerce of the Province of Canada; provided always that the net 
produce of all duties so imposed should be applied to and for the said 
Province of Canada. It will thus be seen that the trade of the province was 
not wholly within local control, and that Great Britain still directed Canada's 
external trade policy. A great many concessions concerning revenues and 
disbursements were made by the same Act, but it was not until 1847 that 
the colonies in North America received full control of their custom tariffs. 
In that year the navigation laws were repealed by the Imperial Parliament, 
and from that time forward the home authorities would not interfere with 
a colonial trade policy, no matter how much it might be regretted. These 
concessions were due in part to the "Free Trade Policy" which was then 
so prominent in the British governmental policy, and in part to the new 
policy of allowing the colonies almost entire independence in all matters 
which related to their domestic welfare. 

An indirect result of this change of trade policy was the Reciprocity 
Treaty of 1854 between the United States and Canada, or rather Great 
Britain for Canada. This treaty gave fishermen of the United States the 
right to take fish of every kind, except shell fish on the sea coasts and shores, 
and in the bays, harbors and creeks of the British Provinces, without being 
restricted to any distance from the shore. The salmon and shad fisheries 
were not to be included. British fishermen were to have similar rights on 
the eastern coasts of the United States north of the thirty-sixth parallel. 
Certain commodities, such as grain, flour, and breadstuffs of all kinds, 
animals, meats, poultry, fish, lumber, hides, ores of metals, rice, hemp and 
maufactured tobacco, were to be admitted free into each country. 

The St. Lawrence and the Canadian canals were to be as free to the 
United States people as to British subjects. The treaty remained in force 



FREEDOM OF TRADE. 421 

for eleven years and was mutually beneficial, although the United States 
Government put an end to it by giving the necessary year's notice. The 
interchange of commodities in the previous eight years averaged $14,230,- 
763, while in the first year under the treaty it rose to $33,492754> and to 
$50,339,770 in the third year. 

The Confederation of 1867 had a considerable effect on commercial 
activity. Inter-provincial trade was encouraged, whereas intercolonial trade 
had been practically discouraged when the colonies were not united and 
when each had its own tarifif. After 1867 there was no duty on goods pass- 
ing from one province to another, and therefore inter-provincial trade has 
grown very considerably since that time. 

Up to the 7th of August, 1858, the Canadian duties were not exceed- 
ingly high. The highest ad valorem duty was 20 per cent, and this was 
on leather and rubber manufactures only. The average of the charges on 
dutiable goods was less than 10 per cent, and there was a large free list. 
After the 7th of August, 1858, there was an increased rate, the ratio of 
duties collected to total imports being 11.6. Manufacturers of leather paid 
25 per cent; a long list, including cashmeres, silks, straw goods, rubber 
goods, jewelry, hats, caps and bonnets, guns, patent medicines, tools, 
woolen goods, etc., were taxed 20 per cent, and a specific duty was imposed 
on cofifee, spirits, ale, wine, sugar, tea, tobacco, etc. In 1878 a higher rate 
of duties was imposed under what is known as the "National Policy." The 
rate on dutiable goods varied from 20 to 50 per cent, averaging about 31 
per cent. The total duties collected amounted, however, to but 16 per cent 
on the total imports. The total imports in 1895 were $110,781,682, of 
which $42,140,475 were free. On these the duty collected amounted to 
$17,887,269, or 1 6. 1 per cent on the total imports. In other words, the 
duties in 1859 were to the duties of 1895 as 11.6 is to 16. i. 

Since 1897 the Government of the Dominion of Canada, under Sir 
Wilfred Laurier, has adopted the system of giving Great Britain a prefer- 
ence in Canadian markets. The preference was at first (1897) 12^ per cent 
of the duty; this was afterwards increased to 25 per cent and again (1900) 
to 33^/^ per cent. At the same time the government has shown a prefer- 



422 EXPANSION OF TRADE. 

ence for specific duties over ad valorem, and a tendency to reduce the duties 
on raw materials. 

A reciprocity treaty with France came into force on the 14th of Octo- 
ber, 1895. Since 1865 several attempts have been made to negotiate a new 
reciprocity treaty with the United States, every Canadian Premier having 
tried his hand at it without success. 

EXPANSION OF TRADE. 

The accompanying tables show the expansion of imports and exports 
since 1837. The total foreign trade, in that year, of all the colonies now 
comprised in the Dominion of Canada was about twenty-nine million of 
dollars in value. In 1900 the foreign trade was a million dollars a day, while 
the internal trade had increased in greater proportions. Of course figures 
for foreign trade are available, whereas those of internal trade must to a 
great extent be a matter of observation and guess-work: 

COMPARATIVE TABLE OF EXPORTS. 

1837. I8S7- 1868. 1878. 1889. 1899. 

Produce of Mine $1,000,000 $286,469 $1,276,729 $2,762,762 $4,415,046 $13,365,442 

Produce of Fisheries.. 4,400,000 540,113 3,357, 510 6,853,975 7,212,208 9,909,662 

Produce of Forest 6,600,000 11,730,387 5,470,042 5,912,139 8,189,564 5,486,724 

Animals and their Pro- 
ducts 2,107,240 6,893,167 14,019,857 23,894,707 46,743,130 

Agricultural Products.. 500,000 8,882,825 12,871,055 18,008,754 13,414,111 22,952,915 

Manufactures 398,821 15,675,274 17,780,776 22,292,516 34,244,220 

Miscellaneous 700,000 121,120 401,871 783,652 99,169 

Value of Ships built at 

Quebec 1,383,444 

Estimate of Unreported 

Exports 1,556,205 

Coin and Bullion and 

Short Returns .... 7,827,890 2,418,655 5,048,908 8,575,555 

Foreign Products 4,196,821 11,164,878 6,938,455 17,520,088 



$12,600,000 $27,006,624 $57,567,888 %79,32i,667 $89,189,167 $158,896,905 




QUEEN VICTORIA'S ARRIVAL IN ENGLAND FROM IRELAND. 



RAILROAD PROGRESS. 425 

COMPARATIVE TABLE OF IMPORTS. 

1837. 1857. 1868. 1878. 1887. 1899- 

Great Britain $11,200,000 $17,559,025 $36,663,695 $37,431,180 $44,962,233 $37,060,123 

N. Amer'n Colonies. 751,888 1,634,414 672,655! 354,432 528,083 

N'foundland -' 

West Indies 2,000,000 26,823 1,396,553 1,033,849 1,942,182 907.895 

United States 1,300,000 20,224,651 26,315,052 48,631,739 45,107,066 101,642,950 

France 400,000 1,365,295 1,385,003 2,073,470 3,879,872 

Germany 300,000 48s,943 399,326 3,235,449 7,382,499 

Other British Corn's 1,300,000 868,211 938 156,540 774,987 1,544,192 

Other For. Co'nt'r's 1,645,770 1,489,275 7,189,669 9,818,694 

Free Goods 2,477,646 

$16,500,000 $39,438,598 $71,985,306 $91,199,577 $105,639,428 $162,764,308 

COMPARATIVE TABLE OF POPULATION. 

1831. 1841. 1851. 1861. 1871. 1881. 1891. 

Ontario 236,702 455,688 952,004 1,396,091 1,620,851 1,926,922 2,114,321 

Quebec 553,134 697,084 890,261 1,111,566 1,191,516 1,359,027 1,488,535 

Nova Scotia 160,000 225,000 276,854 330,857 387,800 440,572 450,396 

New Brunswick Ii9,557 150,000 193,800 252,047 285,594 32^,233 321,263 

Manitoba 18,995 62,260 152,506 

British Columbia... 1,500 3,420 36,247 49-459 98,i73 

Prince Edward Isl'd 32,292 35,000 50,000 80,857 94,02i 108,891 109,078 

Territories 56,446 98,967 

1,101,68s 1,562,772 2,364,419 3,174,838 3,635,024 4,324,810 4,833,239 

At first the trade was restricted by the trade policy of the mother land, 
as has been indicated. After this restriction was removed it was hampered 
by prejudices caused by Canada's colonial position, by mistaken ideas of 
Canada's cHmate and resources, and by the scattered nature of the settle- 
ments. The world knows Canada better than it ever did, but not so well 
as it should. At present the prospects for trade expansion are brighter 
than ever before in the history of the country. 

RAILROAD PROGRESS. 
Canada was slow in securing railways, and the resultant advantages of 
improved communications. The canal system was developed early, but a 
railroad policy was not adopted as soon as it might have been. The first 



426 RAILROAD PROGRESS. 

railroad was opened in England in 1825, and the great Liverpool and Man- 
chester road in 1830. By this date there were twenty-three miles in opera- 
tion in the United States. The first steam railroad in Canada was not 
operated until 1837, and it was a very short line of fifteen or sixteen miles, 
from Laprairie to St. Johns in the Province of Quebec (then Lower 
Canada). In the next twelve years we find a very slow growth, Canada 
having fifty miles in 1849, while the United States had 9,021 miles. After 
that period the growth was more rapid, there being 850 miles in 1856, and 
1,880 miles in i860. The accompanying table shows more fully the growth 
during the different periods : 

RAILWAY PROGRESS. 

1837. 1849. 1856. i860. 1875. 1885. 1899. 

Miles IS 54 850 1,880 4,856 10,150 17,280 

Passengers 5,i90,4i6 9,672,599 19,133.365 

Tons of Freights.. 5.670,836 14,659,271 3i,2ii,753 

Earnings *6,722,666 19,470,539 32,227,469 62,243,784 

*See Dent's "Canada Since the Union of 1841," Vol. II, 140. 

Notwithstanding the fact that railroads were more necessary in Canada 
than in Great Britain, there does not seem to have been the same rush to 
build them, and the "mania of 1845" did not extend to this colony. The 
epidemic, however, struck the country later, and 1850 to i860 was a great 
railroading decade. In 1851 Montreal and Boston were connected, and on 
the occasion of the opening of this road a great international celebration 
was held in the latter city. Under large photographs of Lord Elgin and 
President Fillmore, which were hung across the street, was this inscription : 

Now let us haste those bonds to knit, 

And in the work be handy, 
That we may blend "God Save the Queen" 

With "Yankee Doodle Dandy." 

There was a procession three and a half miles lon^. and a banquet, at which 
3,600 people were present. 



RAILROAD PROGRESS. 427 

In 1853 the first locomotives in Upper Canada (Ontario) were run over 
the Northern Railway from Toronto to Bradford. 

In this year the freight tariff of the Grand Trunk Railway (from Mont- 
real to Portland) was one of the first documents published in Canada to use 
the dollars and cents system instead of the pounds, shillings and pence. 

In November, 1856, some 4,400 people gathered at a banquet in 
Montreal to celebrate the opening of the Grand Trunk Railway from 
Toronto to Montreal. This railway was the first great road built in what 
is now known as the Dominion of Canada. Some of the shorter roads were 
very primitively conducted in those days. On one Quebec road, it is said, 
there was but one coach on the train, and it often contained butter, eggs, 
fish, vegetables, sheep, calves and passengers. 

One great difficulty at this time was the crossing of the St. Lawrence 
at Montreal. The freight and passengers had to be taken across in barges, 
steamboats and sleighs. Twice a year, when the ice was forming or break- 
ing up, traffic would be delayed one to three weeks. On August 25th, 
i860, the Prince of Wales opened the Victoria Tubular Iron Bridge across 
this river, a structure which is nearly two miles in length, is sixty feet above 
the water, is borne on twenty-four piers, and cost $7,000,000. The engineer 
and designer was A. M. Ross and he was assisted by Robert Stephenson. 
Its upper works have recently been reconstructed and it is no longer a 
"tubular" bridge. 

From this date forward, transportation through Canada began to grow 
rapidly. Before i860, the Hudson's Bay Company sent its supplies for the 
North-West via sailing vessel to York Factory, in Hudson Bay. After 
that date they were sent via steamboat to Montreal, Quebec, or to Portland, 
thence by railroad to St. Paul, and then overland to Fort Garry. 

Much money was lost by the early railroads being built with the wide 
gauge, five feet six inches. Two notable exceptions were the Toronto and 
Nipissing, and the Toronto, Grey and Bruce, which were built with a three 
feet six inch gauge. As the four feet eight and a half inch gauge was used 
by the United States roads, it became necessary to adopt it in Canada. 
The change from one width to the other entailed a great expense. Another 



428 CANALS. 

source of loss was occasioned by trying to use heavy English locomotives 
on the Canadian roads, with their light ballast, their sharp curves and their 
winter snowdrifts. 

The building of the Intercolonial and the Canadian Pacific roads since 
Confederation have been large undertakings, which have cost Canada a 
great deal of money, but which have made possible a genuine confederation 
of the different provinces. Compared with her population, Canada has 
greater railroads than any other country in the world. 

One of the latest engineering feats in Canada was the construction of the 
St. Clair Tunnel under the St. Clair River. It is 6,026 feet long, or with 
approaches 11,553, ^^^ ^^^t $2,700,000. 

One feature which strikes the student of recent Canadian history is the 
tact that the Canadian "upper ten" are, to a great extent, railroad people. 
A great number of the rich and important men in Canada are men who have 
made their fame and their wealth in promoting, building or managing rail- 
roads. Perhaps this is due to the magnanimity of the municipalities and of 
the Dominion and Provincial Governments in lavishly bonusing every rail- 
road corporation which comes into existence. 

STREET AND ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 

The first street railway company in Canada was organized in May, 1861, 
in Toronto. On the nth of September the horse-cars were run for the first 
time on Yonge street in that city. In November of the same year, the first 
cars were run in Montreal. The horse car system extended slowly until 
within the past eleven years it has been superseded by the electric car 
system. This electric system has also been extended to short suburban 
lines such as between Grimsby and Hamilton, and between Aylmer and 
Hull. The advance to be made in radial railways is bound up with the 
general advance to be made in electricity, an advance which cannot at 
present be estimated or even indicated. 

CANALS. 

Canals have played an important part in the Commerce of Canada, and 
especially so in assisting the circulation along the great commercial aorta 



CANADIAN SHIPPING. 429 

made up of the St. Lawrence River and the great lakes. Even before the 
Victorian Era a number of canals had been opened for traffic. The Lachine 
Canal was opened in August, 1825, the Welland Canal in 1829, the Rideau 
Canal in 1832, In 1843, the Cornwall and Chambly Canals were opened, 
and enlargements, extensions, and new connections have been continually 
made since that year, until now there are eight canals between Lake 
Superior and tide-water, besides numerous canals on the tributary streams. 
The latest of these eight canals is the Sault Ste. Marie, opened in 1895. The 
total expenditure on canal building in Canada up to June 30th, 1899, was 
$92,036,524. Of this amount $20,692,244 had been expended before Con- 
federation, $4,173,921 having been contributed by the Imperial Govern- 
ment. The total revenue from the canals since Confederation is $12,079,274, 
or an average of $377,477 a year. In 1898, there passed through these 
canals 29,448 vessels, with a tonnage of 6,618,475 tons. 

The original locks of the Lachine Canal had a depth of five feet. In 
1 87 1, it was decided to deepen the canals on the St. Lawrence route to 
twelve feet, and now the policy is to have a navigable depth of fourteen feet, 
the new Soulanges Canal having that depth on the sill. The depth on the 
sill of the Sault Ste. Marie Canal is twenty-two feet. 

Canada's canal policy, like her railway policy, has lacked unity, and as 
a consequence much money has been spent, and is yet being spent with 
little definiteness of object, and without the surety of a profitable return. 
Governmental and political exigencies lie at the root of the trouble, and have 
up to the present time prevented the undertakings being considered and 
managed from a purely business standpoint. 

CANADIAN SHIPPING. 

Canada has been building ships ever since about 1723, and claims that 
the Royal William, built at Quebec in 1 830-1, was the first steam-driven 
vessel to cross the Atlantic. She has now a fleet of over 7,000 vessels, and 
comparing her registered tonnage stands fifth among the mercantile 
marines of the world. Her vessels connect her with Great Britain and 



430 SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS. 

Europe on the east, with Asia and Australia on the west, and dot her inland 
lakes and large rivers. 

On July 1st, 1867, when Confederation came into force, she had 5,693 
vessels, with a registration of 764,654 tons. Now the figures are 6,427 and 
690,525. There has been a decline in recent years, as in 1879 there were 
7,347 vessels with 1,267,394 tons. 

The development of Canadian railways, canals and shipping has had a 
most wonderful effect on trade and in opening new territory. The cost of 
transportation has been wonderfully lessened. The cost of living in the 
interior of the country is not much greater than on the coasts, and products 
from the interior are conveyed to the coasts at a cost remarkably low as 
compared with the rates demanded in 1837. Nevertheless, the develop- 
ment of the Canadian North-iWest depends to a great extent in the possi- 
bility of still further lowering the cost of transporting the animal and agri- 
cultural produce of that region to and beyond the Canadian coasts. This is 
one of the greatest problems which the people of this country are now 
facing. 

SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS. 

Scientific progress is cosmopolitan, and no one country can claim par- 
ticular merit in this branch of knowledge. However, Canada has not been 
behind other countries in producing or housing scholars and in assisting 
them in their work. Sir William J. Logan and Sir William Dawson studied 
the Laurentian system of rocks, which are more prominently situated in 
Canada than in any other country, and gave to geology much valuable 
information about these primary rocks. The latter scientist has given to 
the world many valuable books on this and similar subjects. Sir Daniel 
Wilson, the late President of the University of Toronto, added to the world's 
knowledge of archaeology, while Horatio Hale was the Max Miiller of 
America. There are many others who have passed away, and many who 
are still with us who have distinguished themselves by their researches, their 
investigations and their workings. Canada has not been without its invent- 
ors, and while it has benefited from the inventions of the citizens of other 



LITERARY DEVELOPMENT. 431 

countries, it has not received without giving in return. The Bell telephone 
is but one example of many. 

The Royal Society of Canada for about seventeen years has been accom- 
plishing a great deal of work of which too little is known even by our best 
citizens. Besides this body there are numerous associations throughout 
the country which are doing much for science in an unostentatious but 
effective manner. 

The meeting of the British Science Association in Toronto in August, 
1897, did much to develop the interest of Canadians in scientific subjects. 
We have not yet, however, fully realized the truth contained in the words 
uttered by James Russell Lowell, "Material success is good, but only as the 
necessary preliminary of better things. * * * Th^ real value of a coun- 
try must be weighed in scales more delicate than the balance of trade." 

LITERARY DEVELOPMENT. 

Canada's literary development has been exhibited in three striking 
phases : her educational system, her newspapers, and her volumes of poetry. 
It may hardly be correct to class education as a phase of literary culture, but 
there is such an intimate relation between the two that one is, in modern 
times, an adjunct of the other. And it can scarcely be denied that our 
superb and extravagant (in somie ways) system of high schools, colleges and 
universities is an evidence of something more than business or even moral 
culture. Canada's claim is that she has the grandest educational system in 
the world, and some people aver that because the statement is true Canada 
is handicapped. The tendency of the system has been to produce profes- 
sional men rather than business men, artisans and agriculturists. 

As to the Canadian newspaper, it has developed wonderfully since 1837. 
There were very few papers then, and they were small, ugly and high- 
priced; now they are as numerous as in any other country in the world, 
maintain a higher standard than in most countries, are beautifully printed, 
and ably edited. In 1855 there were about one hundred publications includ- 
ing periodicals and political newspapers. Thirty years later the number 
had increased to six hundred and forty-six, British Columbia, the Terri- 



432 LITERARY DEVELOPMENT. 

tories and Manitoba having been added in the meantime. In 1898, the last 
year for which figures are available, there were twelve hundred and nine- 
teen pubHcations. Of these one hundred and thirteen were issued daily, 
eight hundred and fifty-five weekly, and two hundred and fifty-one monthly, 
the semi-weeklies and semi-monthlies being classed with the weeklies and 
monthlies respectively. Of these twelve hundred and nineteen pubHcations 
ninety-eight are published in French and nine in German, three in Icelandic 
and one each in Danish, Swedish, Gaelic and Chinook. 

The third phase mentioned above is our volumes of poetry. No country 
on the face of the globe has produced, proportionately, so many volumes of 
verse as Canada. Many of these are of minor importance; some of them 
contain valuable productions — poems which have been read with pleasure 
and delight by the best people of other countries. But the numerical 
strength of our poets, past and present, indicates the strong hold which lit- 
erature has in the affections of the people of Canada. 

Canadian literature, generally, is something of which Canada should 
be proud. It had its beginning when Champlain and Lescarbot and Charle- 
voix wrote historical works on "La Nouvelle France," and it is interesting 
to note in this connection that the first Canadian edition of Champlain's 
works appeared in 1830. But though our Hterature had such early begin- 
nings it was, in 1837, of little importance. There was some intellectual 
activity in the dozen larger towns, but there was little publishing. There 
was no public school system, and the people had little time for general read- 
ing-. But about this date there was born a greater activity which, is linked 

to 

with the names of Howe, Haliburton, Brown, Mackenzie, McGee, Ryerson, 
Cartier, Gait and other public men. The leading Canadian poets of the 
early part of the Victorian Era were Cremazie, Chauveau, Howe, Sangster, 
McLachlan and Heavysege, while Christie and Garneau were the leading 
historians. Since Confederation there have been new and worthy names, 
such as Dent, Todd, Kingsford, and Sir Daniel Wilson, together with many 
who are now living and still adding to their already enviable reputation. 
Some of these have gone abroad and, to their local reputation, added that 
won among competitors in the United States and Great Britain. 



PULP AND PAPER. 433 

Not only is our literary progress evidenced by the larger number of 
persons who have done permanent and valuable work, but also by the 
increased yearly output of Canadian books. The number of copyrights 
issued affords some indication of the mental activity of the people. In 1868 
these numbered thirty-four and in 1899 seven hundred and two. In 1898 
the works were classified as follows: History 23, Biography 15, Science 30, 
Economics 6, Law and Jurisprudence 33, Theology 25, Education 52, Voy- 
ages, Travels, etc., 11, Fiction 34. 

The development of pubhc libraries comes next in this line of evidence. 
The growth of these has been remarkable. In 1837 there were less than 
half a dozen in this country, while now, according to figures compiled by 
Mr. James Bain, Jr., the Toronto Librarian, they number 512, with a 
volume total of 2,490,567. Of these 512 libraries 439 are in Ontario, 41 in 
Quebec, nine in Nova Scotia, two in Prince Edward Island, six in New 
Brunswick, four in Manitoba and five in British Columbia. There are five 
general government libraries, containing 250,000 volumes. 

PULP AND PAPER. 

One of the greatest discoveries which Canada has made during the 
period under consideration is the fact that her wilderness of spruce trees is 
a most valuable asset. 

In 1837 the quantity of paper used in the Dominion was small as com- 
pared with the amount needed in 1901 ; consequently, there was no reason 
for even a dreamer to suspect that within three-score years the world would 
be looking to Canada for a large portion of its supply of paper-making 
material. 

Had there been such a dreamer in 1837, and had he acquired a million 
acres of the most accessible pulp lands of the North American Colonies, 
and the right to the water powers closest to the centers of population and 
the seaboard, he or his heirs would now have an asset which would be worth 
many millions of dollars. 

Even in 1871, according to the census returns, there were no pulp mills 
in Canada. 



434 THE POSTAL SYSTEM. 

The census returns were wrong, however, but the omission shows how 
small was the industry. 

In 1881 five mills were reported; in 1891 there were twenty-four mills. 
Now there are thirty-six mills, and the two largest produce as much pulp 
as the twenty-four mills did in 1891. 

This development has taken place not only because it has been demon- 
strated that Canadian spruce is the very best quality for the purpose, but 
also because Canada is the possessor of the largest spruce forests in the 
world. 

In addition to quantity and quality of material Canada possesses advan- 
tages in the wide distribution of vi^ater power and in the conditions of the 
labor market, all of which combined give her undoubted pre-eminence for 
the production of paper. 

The making of paper is a corollary to the manufacture of pulp. In this 
industry there has been similar development, and the prospects for the 
future are equally bright. 

THE POSTAL SYSTEM. 

In February, 1837, Mr. (afterwards Sir) Rowland Hill published his 
famous pamphlet 'Tost Office Reform." In it a uniform rate of postage, 
one penny, was publicly advocated. 

In Canada, at the commencement of the Queen's reign, the sending of 
letters was an expensive luxury. 

There were no railway trains, and consequently no mail cars. The most 
common method of sending correspondence or traveling was by steamboat 
or stage coach. 

In winter, of course, these were replaced by sleighs. As late as the early 
fifties it took ten and a half days for a letter to go from Quebec to Detroit, 
a distance which is now covered in about a day and a half. 

Just previous to 1850 the rate on a single letter not exceeding one-half 
ounce in weight was 44d for sixty miles and under. 

For longer distances the rate was proportionately higher. It cost is i|d 
to send a letter from Montreal to Toronto. 



THE POSTAL SYSTEM. 436 

For the first few years of the Queen's reign the post offices of Canada 
and the other colonies were under the control of the British Postmaster 
General. 

In 1844 we find the Post Office Commissioners of Nova Scotia petition- 
ing the British Postmaster General to issue postage stamps for use in the 
colony. No notice was taken of this first request. A second appeal brought 
forth a polite refusal. 

A few years later all the British North American Colonies joined in a 
demand for colonial management of the post of^ce, and offered to account 
to the Postmaster General of the United Kingdom for all letters going to or 
by way of the United Kingdom. 

The combined requisition stirred the Imperial Government to action. 
The time was opportune. 

The leading men in the Imperial Parliament were beginning to recog- 
nize the fact, that to retain the affections of the colonies, a greater measure- 
ment of self-government would have to be granted them. 

Consequently, when petitioned on post office affairs, an act was passed 
by the Imperial Parliament in the twelfth and thirteenth years of the reign 
of Her Majesty Queen Victoria, entitled "An Act for enabling Colonial 
Legislatures to establish Inland Posts." 

After a great deal of correspondence between the various Colonial Gov- 
ernments an agreement regarding post office management was arrived at 
and an act was passed by the Legislature of each of the colonies of Canada, 
New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island on the lines of 
the agreement. 

The respective acts were approved by the Imperial Government and 
became law in each colony in 1850 or 1851. 

With the introduction of colonial control of the post office and the 
issue of adhesive stamps the number of letters and post offices increased 
very rapidly. 

In the first year of Confederation (1868) there were 3,638 post offices. 
The total number of letters posted was eighteen millions, or about 5.37 



436 BANKS AND BANKING. 

letters per head of the population. There were no post cards in use at that 
time. 

In 1899 Canada had increased the number of her post offices to 9,420, 
and the number of her letters (including post cards) to one hundred and 
seventy-eight millions. The number of letters per head is now 28.3, or 
more than five times what it was in 1868. 

In addition to the letters enumerated above, the Post Office Depart- 
ment in 1899 carried one hundred and twenty million parcels, consisting of 
newspapers, books, circulars, samples and other packages. 

The mail subsidies for that year were $584,056; the total revenue derived 
from this source was $4,325,432, and the expenditure was about $400,000 
in excess of this amount. 

The money order department is now an important branch of post office 
work. In 1869 only 550 offices issued money orders; now there are nearly 
2,000. In 1899 about $15,000,000 was transmitted in this way. 

A postal note system was inaugurated in August, 1898. 

FINANCE STATISTICS. 

Perhaps nothing indicates the growth of a country so much as its gov- 
ernmental revenue and expenditure. There are no figures in existence to 
show this feature of Canadian history before 1868. 

In that year the revenue was over $13,000,000 and the expenditure 
about the same. In 1899 the revenue was over $46,000,000, and the 
expenditure slightly less. 

As compared with 1837 the revenue of 1900 would probably be ten 
times as great. 

BANKS AND BANKING. 

In 1837 there were less than half a dozen chartered banks in Canada, 
and the other colonies were no better served. 

Only three or four of these institutions survived the financial crisis of that 
year. 



BANKS AND BANKING. 437 

Three of these are still in existence — the Bank of Montreal, and the 
Quebec Bank, founded in 1817; and the Bank of British North America, 
founded in 1836, 

The growth of the first of these indicates the growth of the others, 
although the Bank of Montreal stands at the head of the list of banking 
institutions in America. 

At an early stage in their history the Canadian banks established 
branches in various centers, and this branch system is now a distinguishing 
feature of Canadian banking in general. 

It has undoubtedly proved of signal service in the development of busi- 
ness, furnishing complete banking faciUties to places where a local bank 
could hardly have been founded. 

These branches also give a certain uniformity to the bank note issues. 
The same notes being found in British Columbia as are found in Nova 
Scotia. 

In considering this last statement, it is well to remember that in Canada 
all one dollar, two dollar and four dollar bills are issued direct to the people 
by the government. 

All bills of a higher denomination are issued through the banks, and 
bear the name of the bank through which they are issued. 

In 1868 the paid up capital of the chartered banks was $30,507,447; in 
1899 this had increased to $63,726,399. 

During the same period the bank notes in circulation increased from 
$9,350,646 to $41,513,139. 

In 1868 Canadians were not very rich, and had on deposit only some 
$33,000,000; by 1899 their surplus cash had increased to the magnificent 
sum of $266,504,528. 

Not only does this indicate the growth of the country's wealth, but it 
also shows the high regard and impHcit faith which the public has in its 
chartered banks. 

In addition to these deposits the Post Office Savings Banks in 1899 con- 
tained about $35,000,000. Other Government savings banks contained 
$15,000,000, and certain special savings banks another $15,000,000. 



438 MINERALS. 

These three classes of banks combined had on deposit $66,000,000. 

The loan companies in 1898 had on deposit $18,986,154. 

Combining these three classes of deposit holders, viz., chartered banks, 
savings banks and loan companies, it will be found that the people of Canada 
have on deposit nearly $4,000,000. 

This is a considerable amount, and indicates quite clearly that Canada 
is a prosperous country, and Canadians are a prosperous and money-saving 
people. 

The figures given do not fully indicate this prosperity, for there is a 
large number of private banks throughout the Dominion. 

MINERALS. 

It would be unfair to close a sketch of this kind without some reference 
to the great progress that Canada has made during recent years as a mineral- 
producing country. 

In this connection she is fast rising in the list as a producer of the 
precious metals. 

In 1898 she stood sixth in the list, with her productions of gold and 
silver, being beaten only by Africa, the United States, Australia, Mexico 
and Russia, which rank in the order named. 

In 1900 she was probably fifth, as the discovery of new mines in British 
Columbia and the Yukon increased her production so much that she 
probably displaced Russia in the list. 

The production of gold is a matter only of recent years. As late as 1893 
the value of the gold mined was less than $1,000,000. 

So rapidly has the development proceeded that the output last year was 
about $30,000,000. 

Canada also produces considerable quantities of copper, iron ore, lead, 
nickel, silver, platinum, asbestos, coal, petroleum, salt, granite and slate. 

The value of the coal production in 1899 was over $9,000,000. 

This promises to be greatly increased during the next few years, as new 
mines are being rapidly developed in British Columbia and the territories. 



GENERAL VIEW OF FIELD. 439 

GENERAL VIEW OF THE FIELD. 

It would be folly to make predictions and prophecies as to what the 
future has in store for the great Dominion of Canada. 

It is an Empire in itself, possessing natural advantages which will, when 
developed, increase her material wealth to an amazing degree. 

No country in the world has made a better or prouder record for itself 
than Canada. 

The men who were the pioneers in this glorious work were succeeded 
by those whose hearts and souls were as thoroughly imbued with the spirit 
of loyalty and determination as their predecessors, and the story of the 
Dominion has served to show that each generation from the earliest period 
has held to the high ideals of their forefathers. 

There is no part of the British Empire upon which the mother country 
can place more reliance than the Dominion of Canada. 

Its sons stand ready, at all times, to fight for the maintenance of the 
integrity, honor and glory of the realm; and, as the reports from the South 
African battlefields tend to show, no troops ever behaved themselves more 
gallantly than did the Canadian Contingents when on the firing line in front 
of the Boers of the Transvaal. 

The spirit of the people of Canada is essentially that of progress, push 
and advancement. The territory included within the boundaries of the 
Dominion contains riches beyond all calculation. 

When the as yet undeveloped area is explored, the wealth resulting from 
the labors of the engineer, prospector and miner will astonish the world. 

But material riches are not everything. The pages of the history of 
Canada's achievements does not alone make record of the enterprise of her 
merchants, traders, manufacturers and builders. 

In the matter of intellectual progress, as the facts, given above, demon- 
strate, Canada has kept step with the advancing civilization, and is as truly 
up-to-date as any of the nations of the globe. 

It is not to be denied that the men of the Western Hemisphere are, in 



440 GENERAL VIEW OF FIELD. 

a measure, possessed of broader and more generous ideas than the majority 
of those residing in the countries of the continent of Europe. 

One reason for this, as may be understood readily enough by the one 
who takes the trouble to stop and think for a moment after having con- 
cluded his observations, is the fact that the inhabitants of the continent of 
North America, of which the Dominion of Canada forms the greater part, 
have plenty of room for expansion. 

In other words, they are unhampered and untrammeled. No ''pent-up 
Utica" confines their powers. They can spread their wings and fly where 
their fancies may dictate. 

This overpowering sense of freedom is a mighty incentive to action. 
The man who is fettered cannot compete in a race, or, indeed, any sort of 
an athletic contest, with the opponent who has never, in his life, known what 
it was to be shackled in any way. 

The Dominion of Canada has room to spread, and she proposes to 
spread. There is no reason why she should not grow larger with each suc- 
ceeding year. 

That has been her habit in the past, and she has become so fixed in the 
habit that to break away from it were an impossibility. 

Then again, it is a matter of necessity that Canada should maintain her 
place in the very front rank in the race. 

The dominant traits of her sons are an ambition to go ahead and a grim 
determination to be in the Advance Guard of Progress; in fact, to be the 
leaders of the Advance Guard. 

There is not a country in the world more favored by nature than the 
Dominion of Canada. Her climate is one which contributes largely to the 
bringing up of a hardy race of men and women — a race which has in the 
times of the past furnished the great leaders who have commanded the 
masses on the march toward the highest form of civilization. 

Canadians are of the stock which sent forth men to every region and 
section to explore, colonize and develop. England is the only nation which 
is naturally a colonizer. 




ALBERT EDWARD INSPECTING DEPARTING TROOPS 



FOR AFRICA. 



BRIEF 



History of England 



INCLUDING EVENTS FROM THE 
TIME OF 



CiESAR TO VICTORIA 



GRADUAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF GREAT BRITAIN 

TO THE 



Mightiest Empire in the World. 



HOW SHE BECAME THE MISTRESS OF THE SEAS AND THE 
LEADER IN EXPLORATION AND DISCOVERY 



ENGLISH WARS AND VICTORIES 



PAET II-HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



CHAPTER XXVI. 

Britain at the Time of the Roman Conquest, 55 B. C. — How the Islands Were 
Afterwards Overrun, and the Outcome — The Beginning of England's 
Greatness — Struggles of the People During the Early Centuries of the 
Christian Era. 

WHEN Julius Caesar at the head of the conquering legions of Rome 
took possession of the British Isles, 55 B, C, there was nothing 
which indicated the greatness which England was destined to 
attain. Her inhabitants, when first they became known to the Tyrian 
mariners, were little superior to the natives of the Sandwich Islands. She 
was subjugated by the Roman arms; but she received only a faint tincture 
of Roman arts and letters. Of the western provinces which obeyed the 
Caesars, she was the last conquered and the first flung away. No magnifi- 
cent remains of Latian porches and aqueducts are to be found in Britain. 
No writer of British birth is reckoned among the masters of Latian poetry 
and eloquence. It is not probable the islanders were at any time generally 
familiar with the tongue of their Italian rulers. From the Atlantic to the 
vicinity of the Rhine, the Latin has, during many centuries, been pre- 
dominant. It drove out the Celtic; it was not driven out by the German; 
and it is at this day the basis of the French, Spanish, and Portuguese 
languages. In England the Latin appears never to have superseded the 
old Gallic speech, and could not stand its ground against the Anglo-Saxon. 

The scanty and superficial civilization which the Britons had derived 
from their southern masters, was effaced by the calamities of the fifth 
century. In the continental kingdoms into which the Roman empire was 
then dissolved, the conquerors learned much from the conquered race. In 
Britain the conquered race became as barbarous as the conquerors. 

All the chiefs who founded Teutonic dynasties in the continental 
provinces of the Roman empire — Alaric, Theodoric, Clovis, Alboin — were 

zealous Christians. The followers of Ida and Cerdic, on the other hand, 

445 



446 BRITAIN IN EARLY TIMES. 

brought to their settlements in Britain all the superstitions of the Elbe. 
While the German princes who reigned at Paris, Toledo, Aries, and 
Ravenna, listened with reverence to the instructions of bishops, adored the 
relics of martyrs, and took part eagerly in disputes touching the Nicene 
theology, the rulers of Wessex and Mercia were still performing savage 
rites in the temples of Odin and Zernebock. 

The continental kingdoms which had risen on the ruins of the Western 
Empire kept up some intercourse with those eastern provinces, where the 
ancient civilization, though slowly fading away under the influence of mis- 
government, might still astonish and instruct barbarians, where the court 
still exhibited the splendor of Diocletian and Constantine, where the public 
buildings were still adorned with the sculptures of Polycletus and the paint- 
ings of Apelles, and where laborious pedants, themselves destitute of taste, 
sense and spirit, could still read and interpret the masterpieces of Sophocles, 
of Demosthenes, and of Plato. From this communion Britain was cut ofif. 
Her shores were, to the polished race which dwelt by the Bosporus, objects 
of a mysterious horror, such as that with which the lonians of the age of 
Homer had regarded the Straits of Scylla and the city of the Laestrygonian 
cannibals. 

There was one province of Britain in which, as Procopius had been told, 
the ground was covered with serpents, and the air was such that no man 
could inhale it and live. To this desolate region the spirits of the departed 
were ferried over from the land of the Franks at midnight. A strange race 
of fishermen performed the ghastly office. The speech of the dead was 
distinctly heard by the boatmen: their weight made the keel sink deep in 
the water; but their forms were invisible to mortal eye. Such were the 
marvels which an able historian, the contemporary of Belisarius, of Sim- 
plicius, and of Tribenian, gravely related in the rich and polite Constanti- 
nople, touching the country in which the founder of Constantinople had 
assumed the imperial purple. 

At length the darkness begins to break; and the country which had 
been lost to vieiw as Britain reappears as England. The conversion of the 
Anglo-Saxons to Christianity was the first of a long series of salutary revo- 



BRITAIN IN EARLY TIMES. U1 

lutions. It is true that the Church had been deeply coirupted both by that 
superstition and by that philosophy against which she had long contended, 
and over which she had at last triumphed. She had given a too easy admis- 
sion to doctrines borrowed from the ancient schools, and to rites borrowed 
from the ancient temples. Roman policy and Gothic ignorance, Grecian 
ingenuity and Syrian asceticism, had contributed to deprave her. 

Yet she retained enough of the sublime theology and benevolent mor- 
ality of her earlier days, to elevate many intellects and to purify many 
hearts. Some things also, which at a later period were justly regarded as 
among her chief blemishes, were, in the seventh century, and long after- 
wards, among her chief merits. That the sacerdotal order should encroach 
on the functions of the civil magistrate would, in our time, be a great evil. 
But that which in an age of good government is an evil, may, in an age of 
grossly bad government, be a blessing. It is better that mankind should 
be governed by wise laws, well administered, and by an enlightened public 
opinion, than by priestcraft; but it is better that men should be governed 
by priestcraft than by brute violence, by such a prelate as Dunstan, than by 
such a warrior as Penda. A society sunk in ignorance, and ruled by mere 
physical force, has great reason to rejoice when a class, of which the influ- 
ence is intellectual and moral, rises to ascendency. Such a class will doubt- 
less abuse its power; but mental power, even when abused, is still a nobler 
and better power than that which consists merely in corporeal strength. 

It was once fashionable to speak of the pilgrimages, the sanctuaries, the 
crusades, and the monastic institutions of the middle ages. In times when 
men were scarcely ever induced to travel, by liberal curiosity, or by the 
pursuit of gain, it was better that the rude inhabitant of the North should 
visit Italy and the East as a pilgrim, than that he should never see anything 
but those squalid cabins and uncleared woods amidst which he was born. 
In times when life and when female honor were exposed to daily risk from 
tyrants and marauders, it was better that the precinct of a shrine should be 
regarded with an irrational awe, than that there should be no refuge inac- 
cessible to cruelty and licentiousness. In times when statesmen were in- 
capable of forming extensive political combinations, it was better that the 



448 BRITAIN IN EARLY TIMES. 

Christian nations should be roused ard united for the recovery of the Holy 
Sepulchre, than that they should, one by one, be overwhelmed. 

Whatever reproach may, at a later period, have been justly thrown on 
the indolence and luxury of religious orders, it was surely good that, in an 
age of ignorance and violence, there should be quiet cloisters and gardens, 
in which the arts of peace could be safely cultivated, in which gentle and 
contemplative natures could find an asylum. 

Even the spiritual supremacy arrogated by the pope was, in the dark 
ages, productive of far more good than evil. Its effect was to unite the 
nations of Western Europe in one great commonwealth. What the Olym- 
pian chariot course and the Pythian oracle were to all the Greek cities, from 
Trebizond to Marseilles, Rome and her bishop were to all Christians of the 
Latin communion, from Calabria to the Hebrides. Thus grew up senti- 
ments of enlarged benevolence. Races separated from each other by seas 
and mountains acknowledged a fraternal tie and a common code of public 
law. Even in war, the cruelty of the conqueror was not seldom mitigated 
by the recollection that he and his vanquished enemies were all members of 
one great federation. 

Into this federation the Anglo-Saxons were now admitted. A regular 
communication was opened between our shores and that part of Europe in 
which the traces of ancient power and policy were yet discernible. Many 
noble monuments which have since been destroyed or defaced, still retained 
their pristine magnificence; and travelers, to whom Livy and Sallust were 
unintelligible, might gain from the Roman aqueducts and temples some 
faint notion of Roman history. The dome of Agrippa, still glittering with 
bronze, the mausoleum of Adrian, not yet deprived of its columns and 
statues, the Flavian amphitheatre, not yet degraded into a quarry, told to 
the Mercian and Northumbrian pilgrims some part of the story of that 
great civilized world which had passed away. The islanders returned, with 
awe deeply impressed on their half-opened minds, and told the wondering 
inhabitants of the hovels of London and York that, near the grave of St. 
Peter, a mighty race, now extinct, had piled up buildings which would never 
be dissolved till the judgment day. 



BRITAIN IN EARLY TIMES. 449 

Learning followed in the train of Christianity. The poetry and elo- 
quence of the Aug-ustan age was assiduously studied in tne Anglo-Saxon 
monasteries. The names of Bede, of Alcuin, and of John, surnamed 
Erigena, were justly celebrated throughout Europe. Such was the state of 
our country when, in the ninth century, began the last great descent of the 
northern barbarians. 

During several generations Denmark and Scandinavia continued to 
pour forth innumerable pirates, distinguished by strength, by valor, by mer- 
ciless ferocity, and by hatred of the Christian name. No country suffered 
so much from these invaders as England. Her coast lay near to the ports 
whence they sailed; nor was any part of the island so far distant from the 
sea as to be secure from attack. The same atrocities which had attended 
the victory of the Saxon over the Celt, were now, after the lapse of ages, 
suffered by the Saxon at the hand of the Dane. Civilization, just as it began 
to rise, was met by this blow, and sank down once more. Large colonies of 
adventurers from the Baltic established themselves on the eastern shores, 
spread gradually westward, and, supported by constant re-enforcements 
from beyond the sea, aspired to the dominion of the whole realm. 

The struggle between the two fierce Teutonic breeds lasted during six 
generations. Each was alternately paramount. Cruel massacres followed 
by cruel retribution, provinces wasted, convents plundered, and cities razed 
to the ground, make up the greater part of the history of those evil days. 
At length the North ceased to send forth a constant stream of fresh depre- 
dators, and from that time the mutual aversion of the races began to sub- 
side. Intermarriage became frequent. The Danes learned the religion of 
the Saxons; and thus one cause of deadly animosity was removed. The 
Danish and Saxon tongues, both dialects of one wide-spread language, were 
blended together. But the distinction between the two nations was by no 
means effaced, when an event took place which prostrated both, in common 
slavery and degradation, at the feet of a third people. 

The Normans were then the foremost race of Christendom. Their valor 
and ferocity had made them conspicuous among the rovers whom Scan- 
dinavia had sent forth to ravage Western Europe. Their sails were long the 



450 BRITAIN IN EARLY TIMES. 

terror of both coasts of the channel. Their arms were repeatedly carried far 
into the heart of the Carloving-ian empire, and were victorious under the 
walls of Maestricht and Paris. At length one of the feeble heirs of Charle- 
magne ceded to the strangers a fertile province, watered by a noble river, 
and contiguous to the sea, which was their favorite element. In that prov- 
ince they founded a mighty state, which gradually extended its influence 
over the neighboring principaHties of Brittany and Maine. They established 
internal order, such as had long been unknown in the Frank empire. They 
embraced Christianity. They abandoned their native speech, and adopted 
the French tongue, in which the Latin was the predominant element. They 
speedily raised their new language to a dignity and importance it had never 
before possessed. They found it a barbarous jargon; they fixed it in writ- 
ing; and they employed it in legislation, in poetry, and in romance. 

They renounced that brutal intemperance to which all the other 
branches of the great German family were too much inclined. The polite 
luxury of the Norman presented a striking contrast to the coarse voracity 
and drunkenness of his Saxon- and Danish neighbors. He loved to display 
his magnificence, not in huge piles of food and hogsheads of strong drink, 
but in large and stately edifices, rich armor, gallant horses, choice falcons, 
well-ordered tournaments, banquets dehcate rather than abundant, and 
wines remarkable rather for their exquisite flavor than for their intoxicating 
power. That chivalrous spirit which has exercised so powerful an influence 
on the politics, morals, and manners of all the European nations, was found 
in the highest exaltation am.ong the Norman nobles. Those nobles were 
distinguished by their graceful bearing and insinuating address. They were 
distinguished also by their skill in negotiation, and by a natural eloquence 
which they assiduously cultivated. It was the boast of one of their his- 
torians that the Norman gentlemen were orators from the cradle. 

But their chief fame was derived from their military exploits. Every 
country, from the Atlantic Ocean to the Dead Sea, witnessed the prodigies 
of their discipline and valor. One Norman knight, at the head of a handful 
of warriors, scattered the Celts of Connaught. Another founded the mon- 
archy of the Two Sicilies, and saw the emperors both of the East and of the 



BRITAIN IN EARLY TIMES. 451 

West fly before his arms. A third, the Ulysses of the first crusade, was in- 
vested by his fellow-soldiers with the sovereignty of Antioch; and a fourth, 
the Tancred whose name lives in the great poem of Tasso, was celebrated 
through Christendom as the bravest and most generous of the champions 
of the Holy Sepulchre. 

The vicinity of so remarkable a people early began to produce an effect 
on the public mind of England. Before the Conquest, English princes re- 
ceived their education in Normandy. English sees and English estates 
were bestowed on Normans. Norman-French was familiarly spoken in the 
palace of Westminster. The court of Rouen seems to have been to the 
court of Edward the Confessor what the court of Versailles long afterwards 
was to the court of Charles the Second. 

The battle of Hastings, in 1066, A. D., and the events which followed it, 
not only placed a Duke of Normandy on the English throne, but gave up 
the whole population of England to the tyranny of the Norman race. The 
subjugation of a nation by a nation has seldom, even in Asia, been more 
complete. The country was portioned out among the captains of the in- 
vaders. Strong military institutions, closely connected with the institution 
of property, enabled the foreign conquerors to oppress the children of the 
soil. A cruel penal code, cruelly enforced, guarded the privileges, and even 
the sports, of the alien tyrants. 

Yet the subject race, though beaten down and trodden under foot, still 
made its sting felt. Some bold men, the favorite heroes of Britain's oldest 
ballads, betook themselves to the woods, and there, in defiance of curfew 
laws and forest laws, waged a predatory war against their oppressors. As- 
sassination was an event of daily occurrence. Many Normans suddenly dis- 
appeared, leaving no trace. The corpses of many were found bearing the 
marks of violence. Death by torture was denounced against the murderers, 
and strict search was made for them, but generally in vain; for the whole 
nation was in a conspiracy to screen them. 

During the century and a half which followed the Conquest, there is, to 
speak strictly, no English history. The French kings of England rose, in- 
deed, to an eminence which was the wonder and dread of all neighboring 



452 BRITAIN IN EARLY TIMES. 

nations. They conquered Ireland. They received the homage of Scotland. 
By their valor, by their policy, by their fortunate matrimonial alliances, they 
became far more powerful on the Continent than their liege lords, the kings 
of France. Asia, as well as Europe, was dazzled by their power and glory. 
Arabian chroniclers recorded with unwilling admiration the fall of Acre, the 
defence of Joppa, and the victorious march to Ascalon; and Arabian 
mothers long awed their infants to silence with the name of the lion-hearted 
Plantagenet. At one time it seemed that the Hne of Hugh Capet was about 
to end as the Merovingian and Carlovingian lines had ended, and that a 
single great monarchy would spread from the Orkneys to the Pyrenees. 

The Conqueror and his descendants to the fourth generation were not 
Englishmen: most of them were born in France: they spent the greater 
part of their lives in France: their ordinary speech was French: almost 
every high office in their gift was filled by a Frenchman: every acquisition 
which they made on the Continent estranged them more and more from 
the population of Britain. One of the ablest among them indeed attempted 
to win the hearts of his English subjects by espousing an English princess. 

Had the Plantagenets succeeded in uniting all France under their gov- 
ernment, it is probable England would never have had an independent 
existence. Her princes, her lords, her prelates, would have been men differ- 
ing in race and language from the artisans and tillers of the earth. The 
revenues of her great proprietors would have been spent in festivities and 
diversions on the banks of the Seine. The noble language of Milton and 
Burke would have remained a rustic dialect, without a literature, a fixed 
grammar, or a fixed orthography, and would have been contemptuously 
abandoned to the use of boors. No man of English extraction would have 
risen to eminence, except by becoming in speech and habits a Frenchman. 

England owes her escape from such calamities to an event which her 
historians have generally represented as disastrous. Her interest was so 
directly opposed to the interest of her rulers that she had no hope but in 
their errors and misfortunes. The talents and even the virtues of her six 
first French kings were a curse to her. The follies and vices of the seventh 
were her salvation. Had John inherited the great qualities of his father, of 



BRITAIN IN EARLY TIMES. 453 

Henry Beauclerc, or of the Conqueror, nay, had he even possessed the mar- 
tial courage of Stephen or of Richard, and had the King of France at the 
same time been as incapable as all the other successors of Hugh Capet had 
been, the House of Plantagenet must have risen to unrivalled ascendency in 
Europe, 

But, just at this conjuncture, France, for the first time since the death 
of Charlemagne, was governed by a prince of great firmness and ability. On 
the other hand, England, which, since the battle of Hastings, had been 
ruled generally by wise statesmen, always by brave soldiers, fell under the 
dominion of a trifier and a coward. From that moment her prospects 
brightened. John was driven from Normandy. The Norman nobles were 
compelled to make their election between the island and the continent. 
Shut up by the sea with the people whom they had hitherto oppressed and 
despised, they gradually came to regard England as their country, and the 
English as their countrymen. The two races, so long hostile, soon found 
that they had common interests and common enemies. Both were alike 
aggrieved by the tyranny of a bad king. Both were alike indignant at the 
favor shown by the court to the natives of Poitou and Aquitaine. The 
great-grandsons of those who had fought under William and the great- 
grandsons of those who had fought under Harold began to draw near to 
each other in friendship; and the first pledge of their reconciliation was the 
Great Charter. 

Here commences the history of the English nation. The history of the 
preceding events is the history of wrongs inflicted and sustained by various 
tribes, which indeed all dwelt on English ground, but which regarded each 
other with aversion such as has scarcely ever existed between communities 
separated by physical barriers. In no country has the enmity of race been 
carried farther than in England, In no country has that enmity been more 
completely effaced. 

The sources of the noblest rivers which spread fertility over continents, 
and bear richly-laden fleets to the sea, are to be sought in wild and barren 
mountain tracts, incorrectly laid down in maps, and rarely explored by 
travelers. To such a tract the history of England during the thirteenth 



454 BRITAIN IN EARLY TIMES. 

century may not unaptly be compared. Then it was that the great English 
people was formed, that the national character began to exhibit those pecu- 
liarities which it has ever since retained, and that the English people became 
emphatically islanders, islanders not merely in geographical position, but in 
their politics, their feelings, and their manners. 

Then first appeared with distinctness that constitution which has ever 
since, through all changes, preserved its identity; that constitution of which 
all the other free constitutions in the world are copies, and which, in spite 
of some defects, deserves to be regarded as the best under which any great 
society has ever yet existed during many ages. 

Then it was that the House of Commons, the archetype of all the repre- 
sentative assemblies which now meet, either in the Old or in the New 
World, held its first sittings. Then it was that the common law rose to the 
dignity of a science, and rapidly became a not unworthy rival of the im- 
perial jurisprudence. Then it was that the courage of those sailors who 
manned the rude barks of the Cinque Ports first made the flag of England 
terrible on the seas. Then it was that the most ancient colleges which still 
exist at both the great national seats of learning were founded. 

Then was formed that language, less musical indeed than the languages 
of the south, but in force, in richness, in aptitude for all the highest purposes 
of the poet, the philosopher, and the orator, inferior to that of Greece alone. 
Then, too, appeared the first faint dawn of that noble literature, the most 
splendid and the most durable of the many glories of England. 

Early in the fourteenth century the amalgamation of the races was all 
but complete; and it was soon made manifest by signs not to be mistaken, 
that a people inferior to none existing in the world had been formed by the 
mixture of three branches of the great Teutonic family with each other, and 
with the aboriginal Britons. There was, indeed, scarcely anything in com- 
mon between the England to which John had been chased by Philip 
Augustus, and the England from which the armies of Edward the Third 
went forth to conquer France. 

A period of more than a hundred years followed, during which the chief 
object of the English was to establish, by force of arms, a great empire on 



BRITAIN IN EARLY TIMES. 455 

the Continent. The claim of Edward to the inheritance occupied by the 
House of Valois was a claim in which it might seem that his subjects were 
littk interested. But the passion for conquest spread fast from the prince to 
the people. The war differed widely from the wars which the Plantagenets 
of the twelfth century had waged against the descendants of Hugh Capet. 
For the success of Henry the Second, or of Richard the First, would have 
made England a province of France. 

The effect of the successes of Edward the Third and of Henry the Fifth 
was to make France, for a time, a province of England. The disdain with 
which, in the twelfth century, the conquerors from the Continent had re- 
garded the islanders, was now retorted by the islanders on the people of the 
Continent. Every yeoman from Kent to Northumberland valued himself 
as one of a race born for victory and dominion, and looked down with scorn 
on the nation before which his ancestors had trembled. Even those knights 
of Gascony and Guienne who had fought gallantly under the Black Prince 
were regarded by the English as men of an inferior breed, and were contempt- 
uously excluded from honorable and lucrative commands. In no long time 
England's ancestors altogether lost sight of the original ground of quarrel. 
They began to consider the crown of France as a mere appendage to the 
crown of England; and when, in violation of the ordinary law of succession, 
they transferred the crown of England to the house of Lancaster, they seem 
to have thought that the right of Richard the Second to the crown of France 
passed, as of course, to that house. The zeal and vigor which they dis- 
played present a remarkable contrast to the torpor of the French, who were 
far more deeply interested in the event of the struggle. 

The greatest victories recorded in the history of the middle ages were 
gained at this time, against great odds, by the English armies. Victories 
indeed they were of which a nation may justly be proud; for they are to be 
attributed to the moral superiority of the victors, a superiority which was 
most striking in the lowest ranks. The knights of England found worthy 
rivals in the knights of France. Chandos encountered an equal foe in Du 
Guesclin. But France had no infantry that dared to face the English bows 
and bills. A French king was brought prisoner to London. An English 



456 BRITAIN IN EARLY TIMES. 

king was crowned at Paris. The banner of Saint George was carried far 
beyond the Pyrenees and the Alps. 

On the south of the Ebro the English w^on a great battle, which for a 
time decided the fate of Leon and Castile; and the English companies ob- 
tained a terrible pre-eminence among the bands of warriors who let out their 
weapons for hire to the princes and commonwealths of Italy. 

Nor were the arts of peace neglected by our fathers during that 
stirring period. While France was wasted by war, till she at length found 
in her own desolation a miserable defence against invaders, the English 
gathered in their harvests, adorned their cities, pleaded, traded, and studied 
in security. Many of our noblest architectural monuments belong to that 
age. Then rose the fair chapels of New College and of Saint George, the nave 
of Winchester and the choir of York, the spire of Salisbury, and the majestic 
towers of Lincoln. A copious and forcible language, formed by an infusion 
of Norman-French into German, was now the common property of the 
aristocracy and of the people. 

Nor was it long before genius began to apply that admirable machine to 
worthy purposes. While English battalions, leaving behind them the devas- 
tated provinces of France, entered Vallodolid in triumph, and spread terror 
to the gates of Florence, English poets depicted in vivid tints all the wide 
variety of human manners and fortunes, and English thinkers aspired to 
know, or dared to doubt, where bigots had been content to wonder and to be- 
lieve. The same age which produced the Black Prince and Derby, Chandos 
and Hawkwood, produced also Geoffrey Chaucer and John Wycliffe. 

In so splendid and imperial a manner did the English people, properly 
so called, first take place among the nations of the world. Yet, while we 
contemplate with pleasure the high and commanding qualities which our 
forefathers displayed, we cannot but admit that the end which they pur- 
sued was an end condemned both by humanity and by enlightened policy, 
and that the reverses which compelled them, after a long and bloody 
struggle, to relinquish the hope of establishing a great continental empire, 
w-ere really blessings in the guise of disasters. The spirit of the French was 
at last aroused. They began to oppose a vigorous national resistance to the 



BRITAIN IN EARLY TIMES. 457 

foreign conquerors. And from that time the skill of the English captains 
and the courage of the English soldiers were, happily for mankind, exerted 
in vain. After many desperate struggles, and with many bitter regrets, our 
ancestors gave up the contest. 

Since that age no British government has ever seriously and steadily 
pursued the design of making great conquests on the Continent. The 
people, indeed, continued to cherish with pride the recollection of Cressy, of 
Poitiers, and of Agincourt. Even after the lapse of many years it was easy 
to fire their blood and to draw forth their subsidies by promising them an 
expedition for the conquest of France. But happily the energies of the 
country were directed to better objects; and she now occupies in the history 
of mankind a place far more glorious than if she had, as at one time seemed 
not improbable, acquired by the sword an ascendency similar to that which 
formerly belonged to the Roman republic. 

Cooped up once more within the limits of the island, the warlike people 
employed in civil strife those arms which had been the terror of Europe. 
The means of profuse expenditure had long been drawn by the English 
barons from the oppressed provinces of France. That source of supply was 
gone, but the ostentatious and luxurious habits which prosperity had engen- 
dered still remained; and the great lords, unable to gratify their tastes 
by plundering the French, were eager to plunder each other. The realm to 
which they Avere now confined would not, in the phrase of Comines, the 
most judicious observer of that time, suffice for them all. Two aristocratical 
factions, headed by two branches of the royal family, engaged in a long and 
fierce struggle for supremacy. As the animosity of those factions did not 
really arise from the dispute about the succession, it lasted long after all 
ground of dispute about the succession was removed. The party of the Red 
Rose survived the last prince who claimed the crown in right of Henry 
the Fourth. The party of the White Rose survived the marriage of Rich- 
mond and EHzabeth. Left without chiefs who had any decent show of 
right, the adherents of Lancaster rallied round a line of bastards, and the 
adherents of York set up a succession of impostors. 

When at length, many aspiring nobles had perished on the field of battle 



458 BRITAIN IN EARLY TIMES. 

or by the hands of the executioner, when many illustrious houses had dis- 
appeared forever from history, when those great families which remained 
had been exhausted and sobered by great calamities, it was universally 
acknowledged that the claims of all the contending Plantagenets were 
united in the house of Tudor. 

Meanwhile a change was proceeding infinitely more momentous than 
the acquisition or loss of any province, than the rise or fall of any dynasty. 
Slavery, and the evils by which slavery is everywhere accompanied, were fast 
disappearing. 

It is remarkable that the two greatest and most salutary social revolu- 
tions which have taken place in England, that revolution which, in the 
thirteenth century, put an end to the tyranny of nation over nation, and that 
revolution which, a few generations later, put an end to the property of 
man in man, were silently and imperceptibly efifected. They struck contem- 
porary observers with no surprise, and have received from historians a very 
scanty measure of attention. They were brought about neither by legisla- 
tive regulation nor by physical force. Moral causes noiselessly effaced, first 
the distinction between Norman and Saxon, and then the distinction be- 
tween master and slave. 

It would be most unjust not to acknowledge that the chief agent in these 
two great deliverances was religion; and it may, perhaps, be doubted 
whether a purer religion might not have been found a less efficient agent. 
The benevolent spirit of the Christian morality is undoubtedly adverse to 
distinctions of caste. 

There can be no doubt that, when these two great revolutions had been 
efifected, the English were by far the best governed people in Europe. Dur- 
ing three hundred years, the social system had been in a constant course 
of improvement. Under the first Plantagenets, there had been barons able 
to bid defiance to the sovereign, and peasants degraded to the level of the 
swine and oxen which they tended. The exorbitant power of the baron had 
been gradually reduced. The condition of the peasant had been gradually 
elevated. Between the aristocracy and the working people had sprung up 
a middle class, agricultural and commercial. There was still, it may be, 




LONDON'S LORD MAYOR PRESENTING THE STATE SWORD TO QUEEN 

VICTORIA. 



BRITAIN IN EARLY TIMES. 461 

more inequality than is favorable to the happiness and virtue of our species; 
but no man was altogether above the restraints of law; and no man was 
altogether below its protection. 

That the political institutions of England were, at this early period, 
regarded by the English with pride and affection, and by the most enlightened 
men of neighboring nations with admiration and envy, is proved by the 
clearest evidence. But, touching the nature of those institutions, there has 
been much dishonest and acrimonious controversy. 

The historical literature of England has indeed suffered grievously from 
a circumstance which has not a little contributed to her prosperity. The 
change, great as it is, which her polity has undergone during the last six 
centuries, has been the effect of gradual development, not of demolition and 
reconstruction. The present constitution of England is to the constitution 
under which she flourished five hundred years ago what the tree is to the 
sapling, what the man is to the boy. The alteration has been great. Yet 
there never was a moment at which the chief part of what existed was not 
old. A polity thus formed must abound in anomalies. But for the evils 
arising from mere anomalies we have ample compensation. Other societies 
possess written constitutions more symmetrical. But no other society has 
yet succeeded in uniting revolution with prescription, progress with sta- 
bility, the energy of youth with the majesty of immemorial antiquity. 

This great blessing, however, has its drawbacks; and one of those draw- 
backs is, that every source of information as to early English history has 
been poisoned by party spirit. As there is no country where statesmen have 
been so much under the influence of the past, so there is no country where 
historians have been so much under the influence of the present. Between 
these two things, indeed, there is a natural connection. 

With us the precedents of the middle ages are still valid precedents, and 
are still cited, on the gravest occasions, by the most eminent statesmen. 
Thus, when King George the Third was attacked by the malady which made 
him incapable of performing his regal functions, and when the most dis- 
tinguished lawyers and politicians differed widely as to the course which 
ought, in such circumstances, to be pursued, the Houses of Parliament would 



462 BRITAIN IN EARLY TIMES. 

not proceed to discuss any plan of regency till all the examples which were 
to be found in our annals, from the earliest times, had been collected and 
arranged. Committees were appointed to examine the ancient records of 
the realm. The first precedent reported was that of the year 1217; much 
importance was attached to the precedents of 1326, of 1377, and of 1422; 
but the case which was justly considered as most in point was that of 1455. 

It is therefore not surprising that those who have written concerning 
the limits of prerogative and liberty in the old polity of England should gen- 
erally have shown the temper, not of judges, but of angry and uncandid 
advocates. For they were discussing, not a speculative matter, but a matter 
which had a direct and practical connection with the most momentous and 
exciting disputes of their own day. From the commencement of the long 
contest between the Parliament and the Stuarts, down to the time when the 
pretensions of the Stuarts ceased to be formidable few questions were prac- 
tically more important than the question whether the administration of that 
family had or had not been in accordance with the ancient constitution of 
the kingdom. 

This question could be decided only by reference to the records of pre- 
ceding reigns. Bracton and Fleta, the Mirror of Justice and the Rolls of 
Parliament, were ransacked to find pretexts for the excesses of the Star 
Chamber on one side, and of the High Court of Justice on the other. Dur- 
ing a long course of years every Whig historian was anxious to prove that 
the old English government was all but republican, every Tory historian 
to prove that it was all but despotic. 

With such feelings, both parties looked into the chronicles of the middle 
ages. Both readily found what they sought; and both obstinately refused to 
see anything but what they sought. The champions of the Stuarts could 
easily point out instances of oppression exercised on the subject. The 
defenders of the Roundheads could as easily produce instances of deter- 
mined and successful resistance ofifered io the Crown. The Tories quoted, 
from ancient writings, expressions almost as servile as were heard from 
the pulpit of Mainwaring. The Whigs discovered expressions as bold and 
severe as any that resounded from the judgment-seat of Bradshaw. One 



BRITAIN IN EARLY TIMES. 463 

set of writers adduced numerous instances in which kings had extorted 
money without the authority of Parliament. Another set cited cases in 
which the Parliament had assumed to itself the power of inflicting punish- 
ment on kings. Those who saw only one half of the evidence would have 
concluded that the Plantagenets were as absolute as the Sultan of Turkey; 
those who saw only the other half would have concluded that the Plan- 
tagenets had as Httle real power as the Doges of Venice; and both conclu- 
sions would have been equally remote from the truth. 

It is, however, only necessary to say that there is no shadow of doubt 
that the people are the real rulers in England at the present time, and have 
been for many years. 

No English sovereign would dream of attempting to thwart the will of 
the people as expressed by them through their representatives in the House 
of Commons. 

Such attempt, if made, would bring about a revolution in Britain within 
a few hours. 

The inhabitants of England prize their liberty too highly to have it 
abridged in any way, and would not hesitate to fight for what they deem 
their just rights. 

Englishmen enjoy more personal and political freedom than the men of 
any nation in the world. 



CHAPTER XXVII. 

Little Known of the Mode of Life of the Dwellers of Early England — Certain 
Sort of Freedom Enjoyed by the Inhabitants at Various Periods — Sharing of 
Land in Common by the Members of the Tribes — Oppression of the Lords, 
Whose Yoke Was Heavy Upon the Neck of the Man Under Him — The 
First Kings of England. 

OF THE temper and life of the folk in older England we know little. 
But from the glimpses that we catch of it when conquest had brought 
them to the shores of Britain their political and social organization 
must have been that of the German race to which they belonged. 

In their villages lay ready formed the social and political life which is 
round us in the England of to-day. A belt of forest or waste parted each 
from its fellow-villages, and within this boundary or mark the "township," 
as the village was then called from the "tun"' or rough fence and trench that 
served as its simple fortification, formed a complete and independent body, 
though linked by ties which were strengthening every day to the townships 
about it and the tribe of which it formed a part. 

It was not until 43 A. D. that the Romans really set about subduing 
Britain. It cost them a great deal of hard fighting, for the natives were 
brave and hardy, but the Romans were better armed. Besides this, the 
Romans were well disciplined and accustomed to obey, while the Britons 
went into battle in wild disorder. 

The tribes in the mountainous regions of Wales held out long against 
the invaders. One of the most famous leaders in the struggle was Caracta- 
cus, the head of a warlike people called the Silures, or Silurians. 

He had taken refuge among them after being defeated by the Romans; 
and it was only after a long and bloody war he was taken captive. He was 
sent to Rome. 

There he, with his family, and many of his fellow-warriors were led in a 

464 



DWELLERS OF EARLY ENGLAND. 465 

triumphal procession through the Eternal City. His companions were 
overcome with shame and walked with downcast eyes, but Caractacus bore 
himself with a proud and haughty air. 

When he came into the presence of the Roman Emperor he disdained 
to sue for mercy as the other captives humbly did; and the Emperor was 
struck with such admiration that he ordered his chains to be taken ofif and 
set him at liberty. 

Boadicea, Queen of a tribe on the eastern coast of Britain, resisted the 
Romans, and, as a punishment, was publicly flogged, and her two daughters 
subjected to the harshest treatment. 

Boadicea, frantic with rage, called upon the Britons of the east and south 
to rise against the foreign tyrants; an immense army answered to the call, 
and won several victories over the Romans. At last Boadicea was defeated 
in a great battle, where eighty thousand of the Britons are said to have beer 
slain. 

The unhappy Queen was overwhelmed with despair and killed herself by 
taking poison. 

The Romans finally subdued all the south of the island, and then 
advanced into Scotland. It was known as Caledonia to the Romans. 

They did not succeed so well there, for they could not conquer the tribes 
who lived in the mountains, and the Roman soldiers found little food or 
shelter in the barren moors, rocks, and morasses. 

The Romans drained marshes, cut down woods, and laid out orchards 
and grain fields, built beautiful houses and temples, and raised strong walls 
and towers to defend their towns. 

Britons were forced to help in these works, and by degrees learned to 
build houses, cultivate the land, and raise vegetables and fruits. 

Instead of eating acorns and berries which grew wild in the woods, they 
ate the food of the Romans. 

Young Britons were taught to live and dress like the Roman boys, and 
went to school with them. Many were trained to be soldiers, and served in 
distant countries to fight for the Emperors of Rome. 

The greatest of all benefits which came to the Britons through the 



466 DWELLERS OF EARLY ENGLAND. 

Roman conquest was the knowledge of Christianity. When the Romans 
came the Britons were heathens, worshipping many gods. 

The Gospel had been preached in Rome, and its glad tidings scon went 
forth into every land Rome had conquered. 

At first the Christians were persecuted; many Britons were martyred, 
but the Church of Britain grew and flourished, notwithstanding. 

The village social center was the homestead where the eorl, a descend- 
ant of the first English settlers in the waste, still handed down the blood and 
traditions of his fathers. 

Around this homestead or sethel, each in its little croft, stood the lowlier 
dwellings of freelings or ceorls, men sprung, it may be, from descendants of 
the earliest settler who had in various ways forfeited their claim to a share in 
the original homestead, or more probably from incomers into the village who 
had since settled round it and been admitted to a share in the land and freedom 
of the community. 

The eorl was distingviished from his fellow-villagers by his wealth and his 
nobler blood; he was held by them in an hereditary reverence; and it was 
from him and his fellow-a^thelings that host-leaders, whether of the village 
or the tribe, were chosen in times of war. But this claim to precedence rested 
simply on the free recognition of his fellow-villagers. 

Within the township every freeman or ceorl was equal. It was the free- 
man who was the base of village society. He was the "free-necked man" 
whose long hair floated over a neck which had never bowed to a lord. He was 
the "weaponed man" who alone bore spear and sword, and who alone pre- 
served that right of self-redress or private war which in such a state of society 
formed the main check upon lawless outrage. 

Among the English, as among all the races of mankind, justice had 
originally sprung from each man's personal action. There had been a time 
when every freeman was his own avenger. But even in the earliest forms of 
English society of which we find traces this right of self-defense was being 
modified and restricted by a growing sense of public justice. 

The "blood-wite" or compensation in money for personal wrong was the 
first effort of the tribe as a whole to regulate private revenge. The freeman's 



DWELLERS OF EARLY ENGLAND. 467 

life and the freeman's limb had each on this system its legal price. "Eye for 
eye," ran the rough code, and "life for life," or for each fair damages. 

We see a further step toward the modern recognition of a wrong as done 
not to the individual man but tO' the people at large in another custom of early 
date. The price of life or limb was paid, not by the wrong-doer to the man 
he wronged, but by the family or house of the wrong-doer to the family or 
house of the wronged. 

Order and law were thus made tO' rest in each little group of people upon 
the blood-bond which knit its families together; every outrage was held to 
have been done by all who were linked in blood tO' the doer of it, every crime 
to have been done against all who were linked in blood tO' the sufferer from it. 
From this sense of the value of the family bond as a means of restraining the 
wrong-doer by forces which the tribe as a whole did not as yet possess sprang 
the first rude forms of English justice. 

Each kinsman was his kinsman's keeper, bound to protect him from 
wrong, to hinder him, from wrong-doing, and tO' suffer with him and pay for 
him if wrong were done. So' fully was this principle recognized that even if 
any man was charged before his fellow-tribesmen with crime his kinsfolk 
still remained in fact his sole judges; for it was by their solemn oath of his 
innocence or his guilt that he had to stand or fall. 

As the blood-bond gave its first form to English justice, so it gave their 
first forms tO' English society and English warfare. Kinsmen fought side by 
side in the hour of battle, and the feelings of honor and discipline which held 
the host together were drawn from the common duty of every man in each 
little group of warriors to his house. And as they fought side by side on the 
field, so they dwelt side by side on the soil. 

Harling abode by Harling, and Billing by Billing; and each "wick" or 
"ham" or "stead" or "tun" took its name from the kinsmen who dwelt to- 
gether in it. In this way the home or "ham" of the Billings was Billingham, 
and the "tun" or township of the Harlings was Harlington. 

But in such settlements the tie O'f blood was widened into the larger tie 
of land. Land with the German race seems at a very early time tO' have 
become everywhere the accompaniment of full freedom, 



468 DWELLERS OF EARLY ENGLAND. 

The freeman was strictly the free-holder, and the exercise of his full rights 
as a free member of the community to which he belonged became inseparable 
from the possession of his "holding" in it. But property had not as yet 
reached that stage of absolutely personal possession which the social phil- 
osophy of a later time falsely regarded as its earliest state. 

The woodland and pasture-land of an English village were still undivided, 
and every free villager had the right of turning into it his cattle or swine. 
The meadow-land lay in like manner open and undivided from hay-harvest 
to spring. 

It v/as only when grass began to grow afresh that the common meadow 
was fenced off into grass-fields, one for each household in the village; and 
when hay-harvest was over fence and division were at an end again. The 
plough-land alone was permanently allotted in equal shares both of corn-land 
and fallow-land to the families of the freemen, though even the plough-land 
was subject to fresh division as the number of claimants grew greater or less. 

It was this sharing in the common land which marked off the freeman or 
ceorl from the unfree man or Iset, the tiller of land which another owned. As 
the ceorl was the descendant of settlers who whether from their earlier arrival 
or from kinship with the original settlers of the village had been admitted to a 
share in its land and its corporate life, so the Iset was a descendant of later 
comers to whom such a share was denied, or in some cases perhaps of earlier 
dwellers from whom the land had been wrested by force of arms. 

In the modern sense of freedom the Iset was free enough. He had house 
and home of his own, his life and limb were as secure as the ceod's — save as 
against his lord; it is probable from what we see in later laws that as time 
went on he was recognized among the three tribes as a member of the nation, 
summoned to the folk-moot, allowed equal right at law, and called like the full 
free man to the hosting. 

But he was unfree as regards lord and land. He had neither part nor lot 
in the common land of the village. The ground which he tilled he held of some 
free man of the tribe to whom he paid rent in labor or in kind. And this man 
was his lord. 

Whatever rights the unfree villager might gain in the general social life of 



DWELLERS OF EARLY ENGLAND. 469 

his fellow-villagers, he had no rights as against his lord. He co-uld leave 
neither land nor lord at his will. He was bound to render due service to his 
lord in tillage or in fight. 

So long, however, as these services were done the land was his own. His 
lord could not take it from him; and he was bound to give him aid and pro- 
tection in exchange for his services. 

Far different from the position of the Iset was that of the slave, though 
there is no ground for believing that the slave class was other than a small 
one. It was a class which sprang mainly from debt or crime. 

Famine drove men to "bend their heads in the evil days for meat;" the 
debtor, unable to- discharge his debt, flung on the ground his freeman's sword 
and spear, took up the laborer's mattock, and placed his head as a slave within 
a master's hands. The criminal whose kinsfolk would not make up his fine 
became a crime-serf of the plaintiff or the king. 

Sometimes a father pressed by need sold children and wife into bondage. 
In any case the slave became part of the live stock of his master's estate, to 
be willed away at death with horse or ox, whose pedigree was kept as carefully 
as his own. His children were bondsmen like himself ; even a freeman's chil- 
dren by a slave mother inherited the mother's taint. 

"Mine is the calf that is born of my cow," ran an English proverb. Slave 
cabins clustered round the homestead of every rich landowner; ploughman, 
shepherd, goatherd, swineherd, oxherd and cowherd, dairymaid, bamman, 
sower, hayward and woodward, were often slaves. 

It was not indeed slavery such as we have known in modern times, for 
stripes and bonds were rare : if the slave was slain it was by an angry blow, 
not by the lash. But his master could slay him if he would; it was but a 
chattel the less. 

The slave had no' place in the justice court, no kinsmen to claim vengeance 
or guilt-fine for his wrong. If a stranger slew him his lord claimed the 
damages ; if guilty of wrong-doing, "his skin paid for him" under his master's 
lash. If he fled he might be chased like a strayed beast, and when caught he 
might be flogged to death. If the wrong-doer were a woman slave she might 
be burned. 



470 DWELLERS OF EARLY ENGLAND. 

With the public life of the village, however, the slave had nothing, the 
laet in early days little, to do. In its moot, the common meeting of its vill- 
agers for justice and government, a slave had no place or voice, while the laet 
was originally represented by the lord whose land he tilled. 

The life, the sovereignty of the settlement resided solely in the body of 
the freemen whose holdings lay round the moot-hill or the sacred tree where 
the community met from time to time to deal out its own justice and to make 
its own laws. 

Here new settlers were admitted to the freedom of the township, and 
by-laws framed and headman and tithe-man chosen for its governance. Here 
ploughland and meadow-land were shared in due lot among the villagers, 
and field and homestead passed from man to man by the delivery of a turf cut 
from its soil. Here strife of farmer with farmer was settled according to the 
"customs" of the township as its elder men stated them, and four men were 
chosen to follow headman or ealdorman to hundred-court of war. 

It is with a reverence such as is stirred by the sight of the head-waters of 
some mighty river that one looks back tO' these village-moots of Friesland or 
Sleswick. It was here that England learned to be a "mother of Parliaments." 
It was in these tiny knots of farmers that the men from whom Englishmen 
were to spring learned the worth of public opinion, of public discussion, the 
worth of the agreement, the "common sense," the general conviction to which 
discussion leads, as of the laws which derive their force from being expres- 
sions of that general conviction. 

Small as it might be, the township or village was the primary and perfect 
type of English life, domestic, social, and political. All that England has been 
since lay there. But changes of which we know nothing had long before the 
time at which our history opens grouped these little commonwealths together 
in larger communities, whether we name them Tribe, People, or Folk. 

The ties of race and kindred were no< doubt drawn tighter by the needs 
of war. The organization of each Folk, as such, sprang in all likelihood 
mainly from war, from a common greed of conquest, a common need of 
defense. Its form at any rate was wholly military. 

The Folk-moot was in fact the war-host, the gathering of every freeman 



DWELLERS OF EARLY ENGLAND. 471 

of the tribe in arms. The head of the Folk, a head who existed only so long 
as war went on, was the leader whom the host chose to command it. 

Its VVitenagemote or meeting of wise men was the host's council of war, 
the gathering of those ealdormen who had brought the men of their villages 
to the field. The host was formed by levies from the various districts of the 
tribe; the larger of which probably owed their name of "hundreds" to the 
hundred warriors which each originally sent tO' it. 

In historic times, however, the regularity of such a military organization, 
if it ever existed, had passed away, and the quotas varied with the varying 
customs of each district. But men, whether many or few, were still due from 
each district to the host, and a cry of war at once called town-reeve and 
hundred-reeve with their followers to the field. 

The military organization of the tribe thus gave from the first its form to 
the civil organization. But the peculiar shape which its civil organization 
assumed was determined by a principle familiar to the Germanic races and 
destined to exercise a vast influence on the future of mankind. This was the 
principle of representation. 

The four or ten villagers who followed the reeve of each township to the 
general muster of the hundred were held to represent the whole body of the 
township from whence they came. 

Their voice was its voice, their doing its doing, their pledge its pledge. 
The hundred-moot, a moot which was made by this gathering of the repre- 
sentatives of the townships that lay within its bounds, thus became at once a 
court of appeal from the moots of each separate village as well as of arbitra- 
tion in dispute between township and township. 

The judgment of graver crimes and of life or death fell to its share; while 
it necessarily possessed the same right of law-making for the hundred that the 
village-moot possessed for each separate village. 

And as hundred-moot stood above town-moot, so above the hundred-moot 
stood the Folk-moot, the general muster of the people in arms, at once war- 
host and highest law-court and general Parliament of the tribe. But whether 
in Folk-moot or hundred-moot, the principle O'f representation was preserved. 



472 DWELLERS OF EARLY ENGLAND. 

In both the constitutional forms, the forms of deliberation and decision, were 
the same. 

In each the priests proclaimed silence, the ealdormen of higher bloo^l spoke, 
groups of freemen from each township stood round, shaking their spears in 
assent, clashing shields in applause, settling matters in the end by loud shouts 
of "Aye" or "Nay." 

Of the social or the industrial life of the fathers of this older England we 
know less than of their political life. But there is no ground for believing 
them to have been very dififerent in these respects from the other German 
peoples who were soon to overwhelm the Roman world. Though their border 
nowhere touched the border of the Empire they were far from being utterly 
strange to its civilization. 

Roman commerce indeed reached the shores of the Baltic, and we have 
abundant evidence that the arts and refinement of Rome were brought into 
contact with these earlier Englishmen. Brooches, sword-belts, and shield- 
bosses which have been found in Sleswick, and which can be dated not later 
than the close of the third century, are clearly either of Roman make or closely 
modeled on Roman metal work. 

The vessels of twisted glass which we know to have been in use at the 
tables of English and Saxon chieftains came, we can hardly doubt, from 
Roman glass-works. Discoveries of Roman coins in Sleswick peat-mosses 
afiford a yet more conclusive proof of direct intercourse with the Empire. 

But apart from these outer influences the men of the three tribes were far 
from being mere savages. They were fierce warriors, but they were also busy 
fishers and tillers of the soil, as proud of their skill in handling plough and 
mattock or steering the rude boat with which they hunted walrus and whale 
as of their skill in handling sword and spear. 

They were hard drinkers, no doubt, as they were hard toilers, and the 
"ale-feast" was the center of their social life. But coarse as the revel might 
seem to modern eyes, the scene within the timbered hall which rose in the 
midst of their villages was often Homeric in its simplicity and dignity. 

Queen or eorl's wife with a train of maidens bore ale-bowl or mead-bowl 
round the hall from the high settle of king or ealdorman in the midst to the 



DWELLERS OF EARLY ENGLAND. 473 

mead benches ranged around its walls, while the gleeman sang the hero-songs 
of his race. 

Dress and arms showed traces of a love of art and beauty, none the less 
real that it was rude and incomplete. Rings, amulets, ear-rings, neck pend- 
ants, proved in their workmanship the deftness of the goldsmith's art. 

Cloaks were often fastened with golden buckles of curious and exquisite 
form, set sometimes with rough jewels and inlaid with enamel. The bronze 
boar-crest on the warrior's helmet, the intricate adornment of the warrior's 
shield, tell like the honor in which the smith was held their tale of indus- 
trial art. 

It is only in the English pottery, handmade, and marked with coarse 
zigzag patterns, that we find traces of utter rudeness. 

It is not indeed in Woden-worship or in the worship of the older gods of 
flood and fell that we must look for the real religion of our fathers. The 
Song of Beowulf, though the earliest of English poems, is as we have it now a 
poem of the eighth centu " ^he work it may be of some English missionary 
of the days of Baeda and Bonn.-c., .vho gathered in the very homeland of his 
race the legends of its earlier prime. 

But the thin veil of Christianity which he has flung over it fades away as 
we follow the hero-legend of our fathers ; and the secret of their moral tem- 
per, of their conception of life breathes through every line. Life was built 
with them not on the hope of a hereafter, but on the proud self-consciousness 
of noble souls. 

'T have this folk ruled these fifty winters," sings a hero^king as he sits 
death-smitten beside the dragon's mound. "Lives there no folk-king or kings 
about me — not any one of them — dare in the war-strife welcome my onset ! 

"Time's change and chances I have abided, held my own fairly, sought not 
to snare men ; oath never sware I falsely against right. So for all this may I 
glad be at heart now, sick though I sit here, wounded with death wounds !" 

In men of such a temper, strong with the strength of manhood and full 
of the vigor and the love of life, the sense of its shortness and of the mystery 
of it all woke chords of a pathetic poetry. 

"Soon will it be," ran the warning rhyme, "that sickness or svv^d-blade 



474 DWELLERS OF EARLY ENGLAND. 

shear thy strength from thee, or the fire ring thee, or the flood whelm thee, or 
the sword grip thee, or arrow hit thee, or age o'ertake thee, and thine eye's 
brightness sink down in darkness." 

Strong as he might be, man struggled in vain with the doom that encom- 
passed him, that girded his life with a thousand perils and broke it at so short 
a span, 

"To us," cries Beowulf in his last fight, "to us it shall be as our Weird 
betides, that Weird that is every man's lord!" 

But the sadness with which these Englishmen fronted the mysteries of life 
and death had nothing in it of the unmanly despair which bids men eat and 
drink for to-morrow they die. Death leaves man man and master of his fate. 
The thought of good fame, of manhood, is stronger than the thought of 
doom. 

"Well shall a man do when in the strife he minds but of winning long- 
some renown, nor for his life cares !" 

"Death is better than life of shame!" cries Beowulf's sword-fellow. 

Beowulf himself takes up his strife with the fiend, "go the weird as it will." 
If life is short, the more cause to work bravely till it is over. "Each man of 
us shall abide the end of his life-work; let him that may work, work his 
doomed deeds ere death come!" 

The energy of these peoples found vent in a restlessness which drove them 
to take part in the general attack of the German race on the Empire of Rome. 
For busy tillers and busy fishers as Englishmen were, they were at heart 
fighters ; and their world was a world of war. 

Tribe warred with tribe, and village with village; even within the town- 
ship itself feuds parted household from household, and passions of hatred 
and vengeance were handed on from father to son. Their mood was above 
all a mood of fighting men, venturesome, self-reliant, proud, with a dash of 
hardness and cruelty in it, but ennobled by the virtues which spring from war, 
by personal courage and loyalty tO' plighted word, by a high and stern sense 
of manhood and the worth of man. A grim joy in hard fighting was already 
a characteristic of the race. 

War was the Englishman's "shield-play" and "sword-game;" the glee- 



DWELLERS OF EARLY ENGLAND. 475 

man's verse took fresh fire as he sang of the rush of the host and the crash of 
its shield-Hne. Their arms and weapons, helmet and mailshirt, tall spear and 
javelin, sword and seax, the short broad dagger that hung at each warrior's 
girdle, gathered to them much of the legend and the art which gave color 
and poetry to the life of EngHshmen. 

Each sword had its name like a living thing. And next tO' their love of 
war came their love of the sea. Everywhere throughout Beowulf's song, as 
everywhere throughout the life that it pictures, we catch the salt whiff of the 
sea. 

The Englishman was as proud of his sea-craft as of his war-craft ; sword 
in teeth he plunged into the sea to meet walrus and sea-lion; he told of his 
whale-chase amid the icy waters of the north. 

Hardly less than his love for the sea was the love he bore to the ship that 
traversed it. In the fond playfulness of English verse the ship was "the wave- 
floater," "the foam-necked," "like a bird" as it skimmed the wave-crest, "like 
a swan" as its curved prow breasted the "swan-road" of the sea. 

Their passion for the sea marked out for them their part in the general 
movement of the German nations. While Goth and Lombard were slowly 
advancing over mountain and plain the boats of the Englishmen pushed faster 
over the sea. 

Bands of English rovers, outdriven by stress of fight, had long found a 
home there, and lived as they could by sack of vessel or coast. Chance has 
preserved for us in a Sleswick peat-bog one of the war-keels of these early 
pirates. The boat is flat-bottomed, seventy feet long and eight or nine feet 
wide, its sides of oak boards fastened with bark ropes and iron bolts. Fifty 
oars drove it over the waves with a freight of warriors whose arms, axes, 
swords, lances, ^d knives were found heaped together in its hold. 

Like the galleys of the Middle Ages such boats could only creep cau- 
tiously along from harbor to harbor in rough weather; but in smooth water 
their swiftness fitted them admirably for the piracy by which the men of 
these tribes were already making themselves dreaded. Its flat bottom 
enabled them to beach the vessel on any fitting coast; and a step on shore 
at once transformed the boatmen into a war-band. 



476 DWELLERS OF EARLY ENGLAND. 

From the first the daring of the EngHsh race broke out in the secrecy 
and suddenness of the pirates' swoop, in the fierceness of their onset, in the 
careless glee with which they seized either sword or oar. "Foes are they," 
sang a Roman poet of the time, "fierce beyond other foes and cunning as 
they are fierce; the sea is their school of war and the storm their friend; 
they are sea-wolves that prey on the pillage of the w^orld !" 

Of the three English tribes the Saxons lay nearest to the Empire, and 
they were naturally the first to touch the Roman world; before the close of 
the third century indeed their boats appeared in such force in the English 
Channel as to call for a special fleet to resist them. 

The piracy of these fathers had thus brought them to the shores of a land 
which, dear as it is now to Englishmen, had not as yet been trodden by 
English feet. This land was Britain. 

The bulk of the population scattered over the country seem in spite of 
imperial edicts to have clung to their old law as to their old language, and 
to have retained some traditional allegiance to their native chiefs. But 
Roman civilization rested mainly on city life, and in Britain as elsewhere 
the city was thoroughly Roman. 

In towns such as Lincoln or York, governed by their own municipal 
officers, guarded by massive walls, and linked together by a network of 
magnificent roads which reached from one end of the island to the other, 
manners, language, political life, all were of Rome. 

For three hundred years the Roman sword secured order and peace 
without Britain and within, and with peace and order came a wide and rapid 
prosperity. Commerce sprang up in ports among which London held the 
first rank; agriculture flourished till Britain became one of the corn-export- 
ing countries of the world; the mineral resources of the province were 
explored in the tin mines of Cornwall, the lead mines of Somerset or North- 
umberland, and the iron mines of the Forest of Dean. 

But evils which sapped the strength of the whole Empire told at last on 
the province of Britain. Wealth and population alike declined under a 
crushing system of taxation, under restrictions which fettered industry. 




DEMANDING ADMISSION FOR THE QUEEN AT DUBLIN'S GATE. 



DWELLERS OF EARLY ENGLAND. 479 

under a despotism which crushed out all local independence. And with 
decay within came danger from without. 

For centuries past the Roman frontier had held back the barbaric world 
beyond it, the Parthian of the Euphrates, the Numidian of the African 
desert, the German of the Danube or the Rhine. In Britain a wall drawn 
from Newcastle to Carlisle bridled the British tribes, the Picts as they were 
called, who had been sheltered from Roman conquest by the fastnesses of 
the Highlands. It was this mass of savage barbarism which broke upon the 
Empire as it sank into decay. 

In its western dominions the triumph of these assailants was complete. 
The Franks conquered and colonized Gaul. The West-Goths conquered 
and colonized Spain. The Vandals founded a kingdom in Africa. The 
Burgundians encamped in the border-land between Italy and the Rhone. 
The East-Goths ruled at last in Italy itself. 

The fierce tribes of Caledonia took every opportunity of attacking the 
northern borders. For a long time they were driven back by the Roman 
troops, who built strong walls and fortifications across the island from the 
Solway Firth to the Tyne; but the Roman Empire was growing weak. 

It was attacked in Spain, France and Italy by hordes of barbarians from 
the north and east of Europe, and even the great City of Rome was unable 
to save itself from their fury. The Emperors could no longer spare troops 
to take care of Britain. 

It was in 410 the reigning Emperor notified the chief towns in the 
island that the Britons were their own masters now, and must take care of 
themselves. 

The northern tribes, the Picts and Scots, set at naught all the walls and 
defences of the Romans and poured into Britain in great numbers. Instead 
of joining together to defend their country, they called in the Saxons, who 
dwelt on the shores of the Baltic and near the mouth of the Elbe. 

They were as brave as the Picts and Scots themselves. They had been 
in the habit of landing on the south and east coasts of Britain, and carrying 
ofT all the goods and cattle they could lay hands on; and the people who fell 
into their power were put to death or sold for slaves. 



480 DWELLERS OF EARLY ENGLAND. 

The Britons promised them large sums and the Isle of Thanet if they 
would drive the Picts and Scots out, and the Saxons were quite ready to do 
this, being determined to gain Britain for themselves — not the Isle of 
Thanet merely. 

Year after year the Saxons landed men in the country, and fought the 
Britons as well as the Picts and Scots. At last, after long fighting, the 
Britons were forced to give way. 

One famous chief, Arthur, performed many wonderful deeds in defense 
of his country, but he was not strong enough to drive out the Saxons. There 
was no chief to fill his place when he died, and by the year 590 the Saxons 
had mastered the land from the Firth of Forth to the English Channel, and 
from the Severn to the North Sea. 

In the west the Britons found shelter and safety among the rocks of 
Cornwall and the mountains of Wales and Cumberland. In these districts 
they long remained a separate people, and attacked the Saxons whenever 
they could. 

Most of the people in Wales still speak the ancient British language, and 
those of Cornwall did so during several hundred years. 

The Saxons were divided into different tribes. One, called Angles, gave 
its name to the country. 

England means Angle-land, and the people of England are called Anglo- 
Saxons. 

All the towns the Romans had built in Britain had been ruined during 
the war between the Britons and Saxons; the British churches had been 
destroyed or turned into heathen temples, where the Saxons worshipped 
many gods, the chief of which were Woden and Thor. 

These gods delighted in war, and the Saxons believed they would show 
no favor to men who died quietly at home. This made every Saxon warrior 
hope to die in battle, that he might go to the paradise of Woden. 

A memorial still exists of those heathen times in the names which the 
Saxons gave to the days of the week. 

Sunday and Monday were the days of the Sun and Moon; Tuesday, the 



DWELLERS OF EARLY ENGLAND. 481 

day of the god Tiw; then we have Woden's day, Tlior's day, Friga's day 
(Friday), and the day of Saturn, or Saturday. 

Christian worship was then confined to Wales and the various mountain 
districts which had afforded the Britons refuge from their foes. 

In 597 Pope Gregory the Great sent the first missionaries the Saxons 
had seen. Before he became Pope his compassion had been aroused by 
seeing some Saxon children sold for slaves in the market-place of Rome, 
and he began to ask questions : 

"Who are these beautiful boys?" asked Gregory. "Are they Christian 
children?" 

"No," replied the slave-merchant; "they are Angles, and they came 
from a heathen land." 

Gregory was deeply moved, and answered, "If they were Christians they 
would be angels — not Angles." 

He at once resolved that, if possible, the Gospel should be preached to 
the heathens in Britain, and he carried out that idea as soon as he had the 
power. 

Selecting forty missionaries. Pope Gregory placed them in charge of a 
priest named Augustine, a monk of learning and piety. 

These missionaries first landed in Kent, as Ethelbert, King of Kent, had 
married a French princess who was a Christian, though the King himself 
was not. 

The King sent a messenger to them and a day was appointed on which 
he would hear what they had to say. At the hour named, King Ethelbert, 
with his soldiers and chief men, were there, and soon Augustine, with his 
companions, appeared, chanting a solemn litany as they walked along. 

Augustine told the King he wished to teach the people; to which Ethel- 
bert replied that he would treat the missionaries well and provide them 
houses to live in; also, if they could, they might persuade his subjects to 
become Christians. 

As for himself, the King said he could not accept these strange doctrines 
and forsake the gods of his fathers. 

Ethelbert, however, was one of the first converts to the Christian 



482 DWELLERS OF EARLY ENGLAND, 

religion, and was baptized on Whitsunday, not many weeks after the land- 
ing of the missionaries. The example of the King was soon followed by 
his people, and on the following Christmas day ten thousand of them were 
baptized. 

The Gospel was then spread to other parts of England, and gradually 
the people turned from their false gods. It was, however, nearly a century 
before the country was Christianized. 

England knew little peace, however, as her people loved war and fight- 
ing. 

A great good was accomplished by the Christian teachers wherever they 
settled. They built a monastery, planted grain-fields and gardens, and 
taught the people how to work in stone, wood and metal; others opened 
schools in which they taught children and men. 

In later years England sent missionaries to Denmark, Sweden, Norway 
and other northern countries. 

Britain was at first divided by the Saxon invaders into small kingdoms, 
among these being the kingdom of the East Saxons (Essex), the West 
Saxons (Wessex), and the South Saxons (Sussex). 

A continual warfare was waged between these kingdoms until Egbert, 
King of Wessex, conquered the others and assumed the title of King of the 
English. 

This brought no peace, though, as new enemies appeared in the form 
of Danes, or Northmen, whose chiefs were called Vikings, or Sea-Kings. 

They came from Norway and Denmark, and were brave and able sea- 
men; they were also cruel and oppressive. 

When they first visited the English coasts they were content to remain 
for only a few weeks at a time, collecting what they could find. This did 
not satisfy them long, and year after year saw increased numbers of Danes 
flocking to English shores and spreading t-hemselves throughout the 
country. 

They had a particular hatred of the Christian religion, being worshipers 
of Odin; they put many Christian priests to death, destroyed church&s and 
monasteries, plundered and destroyed towns and made slaves of the people. 



DWELLERS OF EARLY ENGLAND. 483 

All in all, they treated the Saxons even more cruelly than the Saxons 
had treated the Britons several hundred years before. 

England was in the midst of her sufferings from the invaders when the 
great and good King Alfred appeared as a deliverer. He was born in 849, 
and while a child had shown himself brave, courageous, and anxious to 

learn. 

He Hstened with greatest interest to the songs of the minstrels, reciting 
the brave deeds of the ancient heroes of his country. 

Printing was not invented for six hundred years after Alfred died; all 
books were written by hand, and so expensive that few could buy them. 

Alfred's studies were frequently interrupted by calls for assistance from 
his elder brothers who were then engaged in wars against the Danes. 
When these brothers died Alfred became King of England. 

Alfred's reign did not open (871) favorably, as the English did not give 
him loyal and hearty support; many of his people deserted him; some sub- 
mitted to the Danes, others fled out of the country and Alfred was obliged 
to seek refuge in flight, disguised as a peasant. 

Finally the King gathered a few faithful adherents and settled at Athel- 
ney, in Somersetshire, from where they sent out small parties and attacked 
the Danes, wherever found. The English, meantime, regretted that they 
had forsaken their King, as the Danes treated them cruelly. Learning this, 
Alfred sent 9ecret messages to the chiefs, bidding them to arm themselves 
and come to him. 

Alfred was anxious to learn how the Danes had fortified their encamp- 
ment, and to gain information he disguised himself as a minstrel, and with 
a harp in his hand, proceeded into the camp of his enemies. 

Delighted with the music, they permitted him to come and go when he 
pleased, and see everything, having no suspicion who the young harper was. 

With this information Alfred led his men against the Danes and gained 
a complete victory. He was not cruel or vindictive, but, on the contrary, 
had a great desire to turn his enemies into friends. He persuaded the 
Danish chief to leave the worship of Odin and accept the Christian religion, 



484 DWELLERS OF EARLY ENGLAND. 

and gave him a great tract of land in the eastern part of England that he 
might live there in peace with his followers. 

The north of England at that time contained many Danes who had set- 
tled and made their homes there, but all were loyal after this, and England 
at last knew the meaning of peace. 

Many attacks were made upon the English by the Northmen, but they 
were always repulsed. 

Alfred taught the English to build good ships, and they soon had a sub- 
stantial fleet of their own to guard their coast from invaders. During 
Alfred's reign a hundred vessels which bore the English flag were built, and 
the foundation for the famous English navy was at this time laid. 

Alfred gave his people good laws, and encouraged them in building 
schools and in seeking the best and wisest teachers. At the time of his 
death, in 901, England was enjoying peace and more prosperity than she 
had before known. 

He was succeeded by his son, Edward the Elder, a brave and wise 
Prince, who ruled twenty-four years, and was succeeded by his son 
Athelstan, who reigned more gloriously than any of the Saxon Kings except 
Alfred. 

Athelstan followed in the steps of Alfred, encouraging learning and 
trade with foreign countries. He made a law that every one who built a 
ship and crossed the seas in it three times should become a nobleman and 
have a right to sit in the Witan, the Great Council of England, which helped 
the Kings to make laws. Sometimes, when the King died, the Witan 
chose his successor. 

When Athelstan had reigned twelve years, the country was invaded by 
an immense army of Danes and Scots, but he utterly routed them at 
Brunanburg, in Northumberland. 

The battlefield was covered with dead, and the wolves and ravens feasted 
on the bodies of the slain. Athelstan was kind to his prisoners, and sent 
them away when they promised not to invade England again. Three years 
afterward, in 940, Athelstan died. 



DWELLERS OF EARLY ENGLAND. 485 

The Danes did not molest England for many years after his death, yet 
the country was neither peaceful nor prosperous. 

The Kings who reigned during the next seventy years were not so wise 
as Athelstan. 

The most powerful was Edgar, who sat on the throne from 958 to 975, 
and famous for having tried to destroy the wolves and other fierce beasts 
of the woods and mountains. 

The Princes of Wales agreed to pay him a yearly tribute, but instead of 
money Edgar asked three hundred wolves' heads every year. 

Edgar's eldest son was murdered by his stepmother, who wanted her 
own child, Ethelred, on the throne, and the curse of that evil deed rested 
on all Ethelred's reign. 

He grew up idle and cruel ; was never ready to fight the enemies of Eng- 
land nor do anything for the good of the kingdom. 

So his subjects named him "Ethelred, the Unready." 

The Danes began to harass the people as in the times before Alfred. 

Ethelred tried to bribe them, and made his subjects pay heavy taxes 
to raise money for the Danes. The latter took Ethelred's bribes, and prom- 
ised to leave, but they came back again and demanded more. 

Then Ethelred tried to rid himself of them in another way. Ele gave 
secret orders that all the Danes in England be put to death; and on the 13th 
of November, 1002, thousands were murdered — even the little children not 
being spared. 

In revenge, Sweyn, King of Denmark, with a great fleet and army, 
ravaged England till the people were left with little or nothing. Their 
houses were burnt and their crops destroyed, and thousands perished by 
famine or sword. 

Finally, the country submitted. Ethelred fled for refuge to the Duke of 
Normandy, whose sister he had married. 

Sweyn lived but a few weeks after he became King of England, and 
Ethelred came back. 

He found a powerful enemy in Sweyn's son, Canute, who, after Ethel- 
red's death, ascended the throne. 



486 DWELLERS OF EARLY ENGLAND. 

Canute reigned nineteen years and was liked by the people. He treated 
them kindly and did justice to all alike, whether Danes or Englishmen. 

He tried to repair the mischief done by his father's invading army, and 
rebuilt churches and schools which had been destroyed. He was kind to 
learned men, but there were few persons who cared to learn. 

The English had been growing more ignorant instead of wiser than 
their fathers. Very few could read and write, and even the priests scarcely 
knew anything. 

Canute was King of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, as well as of Eng- 
land; and now that there was peace among all these countries, the ships of 
the merchants went freely to and fro, and the citizens of London and other 
English towns began to grow rich. 

King Canute made several voyages himself. He liked fine ships, 
curiously adorned with carved work and gilding, sails of purple embroidered 
with gold, and large figures, like birds with their wings spread, on the top 
of the masts. 

Some of his courtiers thought to please him by praising his power and 
calling him the ruler of earth and sea. He bade them come with him to the 
water-side, and seated himself in state on the seashore when the tide was 
coming in. 

Then he spoke to the sea, and said, 'T command thee to come no 
farther, and not to wet the feet of thy Sovereign!" 

But the waves rolled on, and rose higher and higher on the beach till 
they washed over the King's feet and surrounded the chair on which he was 
sitting. 

"See," said he, turning to his flatterers, "and remember that there is 
only One Ruler of the earth and sea — He who can say to the ocean, 'Hith- 
erto shalt thou come, and no farther,' and it will obey Him." 

Canute wore his crown no more after that day, to show that he was only 
a servant of the King of Kings. 

After the death of Canute, two of his sons reigned for a time, but they 
were unpopular. The English then chose Edward, a son of Ethelred the 
Unready. He was called Edward the Confessor, being mild and gentle. 



DWELLERS OF EARLY ENGLAND. 487 

He was so mild, in fact, that he allowed first one and then another to 
take the power into their hands. 

Walls and fortifications of the towns went to ruin; there was no money 
to repair them, or to provide for the fleets, because the King spent it in gifts 
for his favorites or building and enriching monasteries. 

He had lived so long in Normandy he was more like a foreigner than 
an Englishman, and loved the Norman language and customs better than 
those of England. He also gave all the riches and honors he could to 
Norman friends. He made them Bishops, and Earls, and Governors of 
towns. The Normans were proud and covetous, and showed great co-n- 
tempt for English laws. 

The richest and most powerful man among the English was Earl God- 
win. Edward had married Godwin's daughter Edith. The Normans 
detested Godwin, because he shielded his countrymen from their oppres- 
sion, and persuaded Edward he was a traitor and ought to be banished. 

Godwin did not stay away long, and as soon as he showed himself in 
England again the people, and even the King's soldiers, flocked to him. 
The Normans escaped from the country as fast as they could. 

Soon after this, Godwin died. He left several sons, the eldest of whom, 
Harold, a great favorite with the people, being brave, wise, and generous. 
The King also was fond of him, and left the cares of government in his 
hands. 

In the beginning of January, 1066, Edward the Confessor died. During 
many years, a neighboring Prince had been looking on the land with a 
covetous eye, and planning to seize it for his own as soon as Edward should 
die. 

This was William, Duke of Normandy, a great warrior and very 
ambitious. 

William knew the man who would be most likely to prevent him from 
seizing upon England was Harold, but he thought he had found out the way 
to make Harold help him. About a year before King Edward died, Harold 
had visited Normandy. 

William received him with great show of courtesy and friendship, but 



488 DWELLERS OF EARLY ENGLAND. 

would not let him go back to his own country till he had taken an oath that 
when Edward died the English people should choose William for their 
King. 

When Harold told his countrymen what he had done, they declared he 
would be guilty of a greater sin if he kept such an oath than if he broke it, 
for he had no right to try to make a foreign Prince King of England. 

After Edward's death they chose Harold as King, but William defeated 
him at Hastings and took the reins of government. 

It was William's superior generalship that defeated Harold. The English 
were sheltered behind a rough trench and a stockade on the height of Senlac. 
Marshy ground covered their right ; on the left, the most exposed part of the 
position, the hus-carles or body-guard of Harold, men in full armor and 
wielding huge axes, were grouped round the Golden Dragon of Wessex and 
the Standard of the King. 

The rest of the ground was covered by thick masses of half-armed rustics 
who had flocked at Harold's summons to the fight with the stranger. 

It was against the center of this formidable position that William arrayed 
his Norman knighthood, while the mercenary forces he had gathered in 
France and Brittany were ordered to attack its flanks. 

The fight was fierce and bloody and the Norman won not only the battle 
but a throne as well. 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 

William the Conqueror Crowned King of England After the Battle of Hastings — 
The Islands Under Various Rulers — Condition of the People of Britain — 
Wars and Conquests — Events Tip to the Accession of Henry VII. 

WILLIAM OF NORMANDY, known as the Conqueror, was 
crowned King of England on Christmas Day 1066/ not long after 
the battle of Hastings, and his reign continued through twenty- 
one years. He met his death at Mantes, in France, he having made war on 
the French King for an alleged humorous remark. William burned and 
destroyed everything on the way to Paris, but at Mantes his horse trod upon 
a burning piece of wood and threw him, the monarch dying at Rouen a short 
time afterwards. He was buried at Caen. 

William's rule was a harsh one, after the manner of the age, but he was 
an able man, and his faculty for organization brought order out of disorder. 
His sole idea was to Normanize England, and he did it to a great extent. 

In addition to the new laws and customs William and his Normans 
brought into England, they introduced another language. William ordered 
that the laws of the country should be written in Norman-French, and all 
the barons spoke French and despised the English tongue. But as time 
went on, their sons and grandsons began to speak English, and the English 
mixed Norman words with their own. This was, in part, the method of 
the formation of the English language, as it came to be known. 

With the death of the Conqueror passed the terror which had held the 
Barons in awe, while the severance of his dominions roused their hopes cf 
successful resistance to the stern rule beneath which they had bowed. 

William bequeathed Normandy to his eldest son Robert; but William 
the Red, his second son, hastened Vv^ith his father's ring to England, where 
the influence of Lanfranc secured him the crown. 

The baronage seized the opportunity to rise in arms under pretext of 
supporting the claims of Robert, whose weakness of character gave full 

489 



490 WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 

scope for the growth of feudal independence; and Bishop Odo, now freed 
from prison, placed himself at the head of the revolt. 

The new King was thrown almost wholly on the loyalty of his English 
subjects. But the national stamp which William had given to his Kingship 
told at once. The English rallied to the royal standard; Bishop Wulfstan 
of Worcester, the one surviving Bishop of English blood, defeated the 
insurgents in the West; while the King, summoning the freemen of country 
and town to his host under pain of being branded as "nithing" or worthless, 
advanced with a large force against Rochester, where the Barons were con- 
centrated. 

A plague which broke out among the garrison forced them to capitulate, 
and as the prisoners passed through the royal army cries of "gallows and 
cord" burst from the English ranks. The failure of a later conspiracy whose 
aim was to set on the throne a kinsman of the royal house, Stephen of Albe- 
marle, with the capture and imprisonment of its head, Robert Mowbray, 
the Earl of Northumberland, brought home at last to the baronage their 
helplessness in a strife with the King. 

The genius of the Conqueror had saved England from the danger of 
feudalism. But he had left as weighty a danger in the power which trod 
feudalism under foot. The power of the Crown was a purely personal 
power, restrained under the Conqueror by his own high sense of duty, but 
capable of becoming a pure despotism in the hands of his son. 

The nobles were at his feet, and the poHcy of his minister, Bishop Flam- 
bard of Durham, loaded their estates with feudal obligations. Each tenant 
was held as bound to appear if needful thrice a year at the royal court, to 
pay a heavy fine or rent on succession to his estate, to contribute aid in case 
of the King's capture in war or the knighthood of the King's eldest son or 
the marriage of his eldest daughter. 

An heir who was still a minor passed into the King's wardship, and all 
profit from his lands went during the period of wardship to the King. If 
the estate fell to an heiress, her hand was at the King's disposal and was 
generally sold by him to the highest bidder. 

These rights of "marriage" and "wardship," as well as the exaction of 



WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 491 

aids at the royal will, poured wealth into the treasury while they impover- 
ished and fettered the baronage. A fresh source of revenue was found in 
the church. 

The same principles of feudal dependence were applied to its lands as to 
those of the nobles; and during the vacancy of a see or abbey its profits, 
like those of a minor, were swept into the royal hoard. 

William's profligacy and extravagance soon tempted him to abuse this 
resource, and so steadily did he refuse to appoint successors to prelates 
whom death removed that at the close of his reign one archbishopric, four 
bishoprics, and eleven abbeys were found to be without pastors. 

Vile as was this system of extortion and misrule but a single voice was 
raised in protest against it. Lanfranc had been followed in his abbey at Bee 
by the most famous of his scholars, Anselm of Aosta, an Italian like him- 
self. 

.Friends as they were, no two men could be more strangely unlike. 
Wandering like other Italian scholars to Normandy, he became a monk 
under Lanfranc, and on his teacher's removal to higher duties succeeded 
him in the direction of the Abbey of Bee. No teacher has ever thrown a 
greater spirit of love into his toil. 

The worst natures softened before this tenderness and patience. Even 
the Conqueror, so harsh and terrible to others, became another man, 
gracious and easy of speech, with Anselm. But amid his absorbing cares 
as a teacher, the Prior of Bee found time for philosophical speculations to 
which we owe the scientific inquiries which built up the theology of the 
middles ages. His famous works were the first attempts of any Christian 
thinker to elicit the idea of God from the very nature of the human reason. 
His passion for abstruse thought robbed him of food and sleep. Some- 
times he could hardly pray. Often the night was a long watch till he could 
seize his conception and write it on the wax tablets which lay beside him. 

Even the greed of lands for the church to which so many religious men 
yielded found its characteristic rebuke as the battling lawyers in such a suit 
saw Anselm quietly close his eyes in court and go peacefully to sleep. 

A sudden impulse of the Red King drew the Abbot from these quiet 



402 WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 

studies into the storms of the world. The see of Canterbury had long been 
left without a Primate, when a dangerous illness frightened the King into 
the promotion of Anselm. 

The Abbot, who happened at the time to be in England on the business 
of his house, was dragged to the royal couch and the cross forced into his 
hands. 

But William had no sooner recovered from his sickness than he found 
himself face to face with an opponent whose meek and loving temper rose 
into firmness and grandeur when it fronted the tyranny of the King. Much 
or the struggle between William and the Archbishop turned on questions 
such as the right of investiture, which have httle bearing on our history, 
but the particular question at issue was of less importance than the fact of 
a contest at all. 

The boldness of Anselm's attitude not only broke the traditions of 
ecclesiastical servitude, but infused through the nation at large a new spirit 
of independence. The real character of the strife appears in the Primate's 
answer when his remonstrances against the lawless exactions from the 
church were met by a demand for a present on his own promotion, and his 
first offer of five hundred pounds was contemptuously refused. 

"Treat me as a free man," Anselm replied, "and I devote myself and all 
that I have to your service, but if you treat me as a slave you shall have 
neither me nor mine." 

A burst of the Red King's fury drove the Archbishop from court, but 
his example had not been lost, and the close of William's reign found a new 
spirit of freedom in England with which the greatest of the Conqueror's 
sons was glad to make terms. 

His exile, however, left Wilham without a check. Supreme at home, he 
was full of ambition abroad. As a soldier the Red King was little inferior 
to his father. Normandy had been pledged to him by his brother Robert in 
exchange for a sum which enabled the Duke to march in the first Crusade 
for the delivery of the Holy Land, and a rebellion at Le Mans was subdued 
by the fierce energy with which William fiung himself at the news of it into 
the first boat he found, and crossed the channel in face of a storm. 



WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 493 

''Kings never drown," he replied contemptuously to the remonstrances 
of his followers. Homage was again wrested from Malcolm by a march to 
the Firth of Forth, and the subsequent death of that King threw Scotland 
into a disorder which enabled an army under Eadgar ^theling to estabhsh 
Edgar, the son of Margaret, as an English feudatory on the throne. 

In Wales William was less triumphant, and the terrible losses inflicted 
on the heavy Norman cavalry in the fastnesses of Snowdon forced him to 
fall back on the slower but wiser policy of the Conqueror. But triumph 
and defeat ahke ended in a strange and tragical close. In iioo the Red 
Kmg was found dead by peasants in a glade of the New Forest, with an 
arrow through his breast. 

When William II. died Robert was in Palestine, having joined the 
Crusaders. It was the understanding that Robert was to succeed William, 
but Henry took advantage of his absence and secured the throne. The 
English admired Henry because; he had taken an English Princess, Maude, 
a descendant of the old royal line, for his wife. 

Queen Maude was popular and had a good influence over Henry, who 
although himself an oppressor, stood between the people and the covetous 
barons. 

In 1 106 Henry overran Normandy and imprisoned his brother Duke 
Robert, who had returned from Palestine, for life. Queen Maude really 
reigned m England, and was greatly beloved because of her good deeds 
She was generous and kind-hearted, and so long as Henry was away there 
was peace in the Kingdom. 

Henry I. died December ist, 1135. He was, because of his erudition 
known as ''Beauclerc," or "fine scholar." He was fond, also, of building 
and began Windsor Castle. His brother William had built the first West- 
mmster Hall in London; and several Norman barons and bishops had begun 
stately castles and abbeys. 

Henry's son, William, was drowned at sea in the "White Ship;" his 
daughter, Matilda, married the Emperor of Germany, who died. Matilda 
returning to England, married Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou, and 
the understanding was that Matilda was to be her father's successor 



494 WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 

Stephen, nephew of Henry I., had promised, like other chief men, that 
Matilda should be Queen of England, but instead of keeping his promise he 
|)€rsuaded a number of the barons to make him King. Some of the chief 
men took Stephen's part, and some Matilda's, and after a civil war of fifteen 
years, peace was established by the agreement that Stephen should reign as 
long as he lived, and that Matilda's son, Henry, should succeed him; and 
England was once more at peace. The following year, 1154, Stephen died. 

Henry, first of the line of Plantagenet, was twenty-one years old when 
he became King of England. He inherited Normandy and Anjou from his 
parents, and his wife, Eleanor, brought him provinces in the southwest of 
France. 

The Enghsh received him joyfully; he began his reign auspiciously, and 
had it not been for his troubles with his sons and Thomas-a-Becket, Arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, would have been peaceful. 

Becket was the son of a London trader, but his genius and learning had 
raised him to the highest posts in the kingdom; no Englishman had ever 
stood so high since the battle of Hastings. 

He had been a brave, skilful leader in battle, an ambassador, tutor to the 
King's eldest son, and chancellor of the kingdom. In every of^ce he had 
served the King faithfully, and was his favorite friend and companion. 

But all this favor and friendship came to an end when Becket was made 
Archbishop of Canterbury. He insisted that priests were not answerable 
to the law* of the land, and the contention finally led to his assassination. 
Henry always insisted he did not know the Archbishop was to be slain, and 
there is no reason to believe he was a party to the murder. 

Henry H. was the first English King to secure a foothold in Ireland. 
Quarrels among Irish Kings led some of them to ask Henry for aid. 
Dermot, King of Leinster, was driven out of his territory, and went to Eng- 
land in 1 168 for help. Strongbow, Earl of Pembroke, and other nobles, went 
to- Ireland to fight for him, and succeeded so well that when Henry went 
over, in 1171, almost all the Irish chiefs made submission to him. 

From that time the Kings of England were called lords of Ireland, but 
it was long before they really had much power over the country. English 




ENTRANCE OF HER MAJESTY INTO PHOENIX PARK, DUBLIN. 




IRISH CHILDREN GREETING QUEEN VICTORIA AT DUBLIN. 



WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 497 

noblemen who settled there became like Httle kings in their own lands, and 
would only obey the King when they were forced to do so. They also made 
war upon one another and upon the native Irish. 

Henry II. died in 1189, his successor being Richard, called Coeur de 
Leon (Lion-hearted). Richard had fought against his father, and as soon as 
he was settled on the throne he joined the Crusaders to fight against the 
Turks. 

Richard quarreled with Philip, King of France, and Duke Leopold of 
Austria, who went tO' the Holy Land with him; Richard failed to get to 
Jerusalem, and his brother John was in rebellion against his authority in 
England. Meantime, the latter was being ravaged by robber barons, the 
people were robbed of their property and their lands were laid waste by the 
marauders. 

On his way home Richard was made prisoner by Duke Leopold, who 
sold him to the Emperor of Germany, and the latter released him only upon 
the payment of a heavy ransom. Arriving in England, Richard remained 
only long enough tO' raise an army to lead against the French King, and 
was killed, in 1199, in battle. 

Richard I. was on the throne ten years, and of that time scarcely nine 
months were spent in England. However, he liked the English because 
of their rare bravery, being himself rashly courageous, and the English were 
proud of him as their monarch. 

John, brother of the Lion-heart, took up the scepter, and the first thing 
he did was to lose all his French possessions except Guienne, This was the 
result of a belief in Normandy that King John had murdered his nephew, 
Arthur, son of his brother Geofifrey, the rightful heir to the throne. Richard, 
before his death, desired John tO' succeed him, as Arthur was but a boy. 

John I. was cruel, mean, unjust and cowardly, and the latter was a trait 
the English could not stand. They could forgive a man for anything except 
cowardice. 

However, John's course was, after all, a blessing for England instead 
of a curse, for it led to the drawing up of the Great (Magna) Charta, a docu- 



498 WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 

ment which guaranteed personal Hberty, justice, and equitable laws to the 
people. 

The people and the barons were represented by Stephen Lang-ton, Arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, and John was forced to sign the Charter, which he 
did on the 19th of June, 12 15, at Runnymede. 

Therefore, John I. was really the one who gave the English the free 
government they now enjoy. It is true he tried to annul the cfTects of his 
action, and hired troops in France and made war upon the barons, but, for- 
tunately, he died in October, 1216, before he could carry out his intentions. 

Externally John possessed all the quickness, the vivacity, the cleverness, 
the good-humor, the social charm which distinguished his house. His 
worst enemies owned that he toiled steadily and closely at the work of 
administration. 

He was fond of learned men like Gerald of Wales. He had a strange 
gift of attracting friends and of winning the love of women. 

But in his inner soul John was the worst outcome of the Angevins. He 
united into one mass of wickedness their insolence, their selfishness, their 
unbridled lust, their cruelty and tyranny, their shamelessness, their super- 
stition, their cynical indifference to honor or truth. In mere boyhood he 
tore with brutal levity the beards of the Irish chieftains who came to own 
him as their lord. 

His ingratitude and perfidy brought his father with sorrow to the grave. 
To his brother he was the worst of traitors. All Christendom believed him 
to be the murderer of his nephew, Arthur of Brittany. He abandoned one 
wife and was faithless to another. 

His punishments were refinements of cruelty, the starvation of children, 
the crushing old men under copes of lead. His court was a corrupt one 
morally. 

He was as craven in his superstition as he was daring in his impiety. 
Though he scoffed at priests and turned his back on the Mass even amid 
the solemnities of his coronation, he never stirred on a journey without 
hanging relics round his neck. 

But with the wickedness of his race he inherited its profound ability. 



WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 49d 

His plan for the relief of Chateau Gaillard, the rapid march by which he 
shattered Arthur's hopes at Mirabel, showed an inborn genius for war. 

In the rapidity and breadth of his political combinations he far surpassed 
the statesmen of his time. Throughout his reign we see him quick to dis- 
cern the difficulties of his position, and inexhaustible in the resources with 
which he met them. 

The overthrow of his continental power only spurred him to the forma- 
tion of a league which all but brought Philip to the ground; and the sudden 
revolt of England was parried by a shameless alliance with the Papacy. 

The closer study of John's history clears away the charges of sloth and 
incapacity with which men tried to explain the greatness of his fall. The 
awful lesson of his life rests on the fact that the King who lost Normandy, 
became the vassal of the Pope, and perished in a struggle of despair against 
English freedom, was no weak and indolent voluptuary, but the ablest and 
most ruthless of the Angevins. 

From the moment of his return to England in 1204 John's whole ener- 
gies were bent to the recovery of his dominions on the continent. He 
impatiently collected money and men for the support of those adherents of 
the House of Anjou who were still struggling against the arms of France 
in Poitou and Guienne, and in the summer of 1205 he gathered an army at 
Portsmouth and prepared to cross the channel. 

But his project was suddenly thwarted by the resolute opposition of the 
Primate, Hubert Walter, and the Earl of Pembroke, William Marshal. So 
completely had both the baronage and the church been humbled by his 
father that the attitude of their representatives revealed to the King a new 
spirit of national freedom which was rising around him, and John at once 
braced himself to a struggle with it. 

The death of Hubert Walter removed his most formidable opponent, 
and the King resolved to neutralize the opposition of the church by placing 
a creature of his own at its head. John de Grey, Bishop of Norwich, was 
elected by the monks of Canterbury at his bidding, and enthroned as 
Primate. But in a previous though informal gathering the convent had 
already chosen its sub-prior, Reginald, as Archbishop. 



500 WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 

The rival claimants hastened to appeal to Rome, and their approval 
reached the Papal Court before Christmas. Innocent III., who now occu- 
pied the Papal throne, quashed both the contested elections, and com- 
manded the monks to elect in his presence Stephen Langton to the archie- 
piscopal see. 

Stephen was a man who by sheer weight of learning and holiness of life 
had risen to the dignity of Cardinal and whose after-career placed him in 
the front rank of English patriots. 

But in itself the step was an usurpation of the rights both of the church 
and of the Crown. The King at once met it with resistance. When Inno- 
cent consecrated the new Primate, and threatened the realm with interdict if 
Langton were longer excluded from his see, John replied by a counter- 
threat that the interdict should be followed by the banishment of the clergy 
and the mutilation of every Italian he could seize in the realm. 

How little he feared the priesthood he showed when the clergy refused 
his demand of a thirteenth of movables for the whole country, and Arch- 
bishop Geofifry of York resisted the tax before the Council. John banished 
the Archbishop and extorted the money. 

Innocent, however, was not a man to draw back from his purpose, and 
in 1208 the interdict fell upon the land. All worship save that of a few privi- 
leged orders, all administration of Sacraments save that of private baptism, 
ceased over the length and breadth of the country; the church-bells were 
silent, the dead lay unburied on the ground. Many of the Bishops fled from 
the country. 

The church, so long the main support of the royal power against the 
baronage, was now driven into opposition. Its change of attitude was to 
be of vast moment in the struggle which was impending; but John recked 
little of the future; he repHed to the interdict by confiscating the lands of 
the clergy who observed it, and by leaving outrages on them unpunished. 

In 1209 the Pope proceeded to the further sentence of excommunica- 
tion, and the King was formally cut ofif from the pale of the church. But 
the new sentence was met with the same defiance as the old. 

King John finally found himself deserted by those he had relied upon, 



WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 501 

and he couici not further hide from himself the utter loneliness of his posi- 
tion. At war with Rome, France, Scotland, Ireland and Wales, with the 
church, he saw himself disarmed by this sudden revelation of treason in the 
one force left at his disposal. 

With characteristic suddenness he gave way. He endeavored by remis- 
sion of fines to win back his people. He negotiated eagerly with the Pope, 
and promised to repay the money he had extorted from the church. 

But the shameless ingenuity of the King's temper was seen in his resolve 
to find in his very humiliation a new source of strength. If he yielded to 
the church he had no mind to yield to the rest of his foes; it was indeed in 
the Pope who had defeated him that he saw the means of baffling their 
efforts. 

It was Rome that formed the link between the varied elements of hos- 
tility which combined against him. It was Rome that gave its sanction to 
Philip's ambition and roused the hopes of Scotch and Welsh; Rome that 
called the clergy to independence and nerved the Barons to resistance. 

To detach Pope Innocent by submission from the league which hemmed 
him in on every side was the least part of John's purpose. He resolved to 
make Rome his ally, to turn its spiritual thunders on his foes, to use it in 
breaking up the confederacy it had formed, in crushing the baronage, in 
oppressing the clergy, in paralyzing — as Rome only could paralyze — the 
energy of the Primate. 

That greater issues even than these were involved in John's rapid change 
of policy time was to show. His quick versatile temper saw no doubt little 
save the momentary gain. But that gain was immense. Nor was the price 
as hard to pay as it seems. 

The Pope stood too high above earthly monarchs, his claims, at least as 
Innocent conceived and expressed them, were too spiritual, too remote from 
the immediate business and interests of the day, to make the owning of his 
suzerainty any very practical burden. 

John could recall a time when his father was willing to own the same 
subjection as that which he was about to take on himself. He could recall 
the parallel allegiance which his brother had pledged to the Emperor. 



502 WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 

But whatever were the King's thoughts his act was decisive. On the 
15th of May, 12 1 3, he knelt before the legate Pandulf, surrendered his king- 
dom to the Roman See, took it back again as a tributary vassal, swore 
fealty and did liege homage to the Pope. 

The third Henry was the successor of John, being the latter's son, and 
being but nine years of age the mighty Earl of Pembroke was constituted 
his guardian. When Henry became of age the people were disappointed in 
him, as he proved to be a spendthrift and a ruler who thought more of his 
pleasure than anything else. 

Finally the barons practically deposed Henry and put the governing 
power into the hands of a Council, but King Henry's eldest son, Edward, 
restored his father and gave the barons to understand that they could not 
rule. 

To bring the world back again within the pale of the church was the aim 
of two religious orders which sprang suddenly to life at the opening of the 
thirteenth cen-tury. 

The zeal of the Spaniard Dominic was roused at the sight of the lordly 
prelates who sought by fire and sword to win the Albigensian heretics to 
the faith. His fiery ardor and rigid orthodoxy were seconded by the mys- 
tical piety, the imaginative enthusiasm? of Francis of Assisi, who took 
Poverty for his bride. He strips himself of all, he flings his very clothes at 
his father's feet, that he may be one with Nature and God. 

Strangely as the two men differed from each other, their aim was the 
same — to convert the heathen, to extirpate heresy, to reconcile knowledge 
with orthodoxy, above all to carry the Gospel to the poor. The work was 
to be done by an utter reversal of the old monasticism, by seeking personal 
salvation in effort for the salvation of their fellow-men, by exchanging the 
solitary of the cloister for the preacher, the monk for the "brother" or friar. 

To force the new "brethren" into entire dependence on those among 
whom they labored their vow of Poverty was turned into a stern reality; the 
"Begging Friars" were to subsist solely on alms, they might possess neither 
money nor lands, the very houses in. which they lived were to be held in 
trust for them by others. 



WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 503 

The tide of popular enthusiasm which welcomed their appearance swept 
before it the reluctance of Rome, the jealousy of the older orders, the oppo- 
sition of the parochial priesthood. 

Thousands of brethren gathered in a few years round Francis and 
Dominic; and the begging preachers, clad in coarse frock of serge with a 
girdle of rope round their waist, wandered barefooted as missionaries over 
Asia, battled with heresy in Italy and Gaul, lectured in the universities, and 
preached and toiled among the poor. 

To the towns, especially, the coming of the Friars was a religious revolu- 
tion. They had been left for the most part to the worst and most Ignorant 
of the clergy, the mass-priest, whose sole subsistence lay in his fees. 

Burgher and artisan were left to spell out what religious instruction 
they might from the gorgeous ceremonies of the church's ritual or the 
scriptural pictures and sculptures which were graven on the walls of its 
minsters. 

In England, where the Black Friars of Dominic arrived in 122 1, the 
Gray Friars of Francis in 1224, both were received with the same delight. 
As the older orders had chosen the country, the Friars chose the town. 

The work of the Friars was physical as well as moral. The rapid prog- 
ress of population within the boroughs had outstripped the sanitary regula- 
tions of the Middle Ages, and fever or plague or the more terrible scourge 
of leprosy festered in the wretched hovels of the suburbs. 

It was to haunts such as these that Francis had pointed his disciples, and 
the Gray Brethren at once fixed themselves in the meanest and poorest quar- 
ters of each town. Their first work lay in the noisome lazar-houses; it was 
among the lepers that they commonly chose the site of their homes. 

At London they settled in the shambles of Newgate; at Oxford they 
made their way to the swampy ground between its walls and the streams 
of Thames. Huts of mud and timber, as mean as the huts around them, 
rose within the rough fence and ditch that bounded the Friary. 

The order of Francis made a hard fight against the taste for sumptuous 
buildings and for greater personal comfort which characterized the time 



604 WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 

and Albert of Pisa ordered a stone cloister which the burgesses of South- 
ampton had built for them razed to the ground. 

It was with less success that the order struggled against the passion of 
the time for knowledge. Their vow of poverty, rigidly interpreted as it was 
by their founders, would have denied them the possession of books or mate- 
rials for study. 

One kind of knowledge indeed their work almost forced on them. The 
popularity of their preaching soon led them to the deeper study of theology; 
within a short time after their establishment in England we find as many as 
thirty readers or lecturers appointed at Hereford, Leicester, Bristol, and 
other places, and a regular succession of teachers provided at each univer- 
sity. 

The Oxford Dominicans lectured on theology in the nave of their new 
church, while philosophy was taught in the cloister. The first provincial of 
the Gray Friars built a school in their Oxford house and persuaded Grosse- 
teste to lecture there. 

His influence after his promotion to the See of Lincoln was steadily 
exerted to secure theological study among the Friars, as well as their estab- 
Hshment in the university; and in this work he was ably seconded by his 
scholar, de Marisco, under whom the Franciscan school at Oxford attained 
a reputation throughout Christendom. 

Lyons, Paris and Koln borrowed from it their professors; it was through 
its influence indeed that Oxford rose to a position hardly inferior to that of 
Paris itself as a center of scholasticism. 

But the result of this powerful impulse was soon seen to be fatal to the 
wider intellectual activity which had till now characterized the universities. 
Theology in its scholastic form resumed its supremacy in the schools. 

Its only efficient rivals were practical studies, such as medicine and law. 
The latter was by far the greater. 

Feeble-minded Henry HI. reigned fifty-six years, and was followed by 
his great son, Edward I., who had spent much of his time fighting for the 
delivery of Jerusalem from the Moslems, but without success. Henry died 



WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 505 

in 1272, and in 1274 Edward and his Queen, Eleanor, of Castile, landed in 
England. 

The people gazed with admiration on the lofty stature and majestic 
countenance of the new King, who surpassed most men in strength and 
activity. Unlike his father, Edward I. was always busy, either in the affairs 
of his kingdom, in making war, or in manly exercises and amusem.ents. 

England soon found the benefit of being ruled by so wise a head and so 
strong a hand. Unjust judges were dismissed and punished, and better 
men appointed in their stead. The country was cleared of the robbers who 
had infested every highway and committed murder at noonday in the streets 
of London. 

King Edward took care to encourage trade. English wool, lead and 
tin were sent to foreign countries, and their products were received in 
return. 

Edward I. conquered Wales and added it to his kingdom, but he was 
not so lucky in his war on the Scotch. He died in 1307, shortly after Bruce 
had been crowned as King of Scotland. 

Edward I. was the first King to have the counties and borough towns 
elect members of Parliament. The Kings who had reigned since the Nor- 
man conquest had summoned only barons and men of rank; but from the 
time of Edward there were commons as well as lords in the English Parlia- 
ment; also, since then it has not been lawful for the King to tax his subjects 
without their consent. 

Edward II. had a stormy reign, and, being devoid of some of the strong 
qualities of his father, was a victim instead of a victor. He was brave enough, 
and not cruel, but he was headstrong and not wise in his choice of advisers. 
He was also a spendthrift, and the barons, not being conciliated, rose against 
him; his wife, Isabella, of France, was also an opponent, and the result was 
civil war. 

Edward reigned twenty years, and was assassinated in 1327. 

Nothing but misfortune was Edward's lot. In 13 14 his army was 
defeated by Bruce at Bannockburn, and then a three-year famine came. 

Edward III. was a minor, but as soon as he was of age he imprisoned 



506 WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 

his mother, Queen Isabella, who had been in control of affairs for life; her 
adviser, Mortimer, was put tO' death. 

King Edward was wise as well as brave, and England became wiser, 
freer and happier. During forty years there was peace at home and honor 
abroad. There were excellent judges, and the laws were made more just 
for every man. 

The wealth of the people grew with their industry, and one useful thing 
they learned was the art of making woolen cloth. Queen Philippa, of 
Hainault, was Flemish. Her countrymen were noted for the excellent cloth 
they wove from English wool, and so King Edward invited some of their 
best weavers tO' settle in England and teach his subjects. The Queen also 
took pains tO' encourage them to learn, and it was not long ere English cloth 
was as fine as that made in Flanders. 

Edward's reign covered fifty years; he died in 1377, surviving his son, 
Edward the Black Prince, who took Calais, won the battle of Crecy and 
brought France to her knees within a year. The Prince's son Richard was 
the heir to the throne, and mounted it as Richard II. 

Richard was ten years old when he became King, and for twelve years 
his uncle, Duke of Gloucester, was the head of the state. The latter died in 
prison, sent there by his royal nephew. Later the King's cousin, Boling- 
broke (Duke of Lancaster), whose estate Richard had seized, headed an 
army of disaffected ones, shut the King up in Pontefract Castle, and how 
the prisoner died is still a mystery. It is said he became insane. 

During this reign the English lost nearly every town in France the 
Black Prince had captured, and there was constant fighting with the Scotch. 

The Duke of Lancaster, as Henry IV., ascended the throne in 1399, with 
the consent of Paliament. The nearest heir was, in reality, Edward Morti- 
mer, Earl of March, descended from an elder brother of King Henry's 
father, but Mortimer's adherents were routed in battle, and his cause was lost. 

Henry IV.'s son, Henry V., became King in 1413. He was a fighting 
man and at once renewed the war with France. His most signal victory was 
at Agincourt, where the French lost thousands — more, in fact, than Henry 
had in his army. 



WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 507 

Henry won back much of the French territory his predecessors had lost, 
and took Katharine, daughter of Charles VI., of France, for his Queen. He 
was also to succeed Charles as King of France, but unfortunately Henry 
died, this being in 1422. 

Queen Katharine married Owen Tudor, of Wales, and this led to the 
founding of the royal House of Tudor. 

Henry VI., son of Henry V., was eight months of age when proclaimed 
King of England and France, and was represented in the former Kingdom 
by his uncle, the Duke of Gloucester, and in the latter by another uncle, the 
Duke of Bedford. 

All of France north of the River Loire owned Henry VI. as King; 
but the provinces south of the Loire looked upon Charles VII., son 
of the last King, as their sovereign. The Duke of Bedford resolved to bring 
these provinces under the EngHsh rule, and began by laying siege to 
Orleans, an important city on the banks of the Loire. As Charles the Sev- 
enth took little pains to relieve it, it seemed that Orleans and all the territory 
on the south would soon be in the hands of the English, but just then Joan 
of Arc came to the rescue. 

Some time after this Richard, Duke of York, nephew of that Earl of 
March who was direct heir to the throne when Henry IV. ascended the 
throne, claimed the right to be King. 

In 1453 the King became for a time quite insane; Somerset, Chief Coun- 
selor to Queen Margaret (of Anjou), Henry's wife, was imprisoned, and 
Parliament placed the government in the hands of the Duke of York, who 
was called Protector of the Kingdom. But as soon as the King recovered 
his reason Somerset was set at liberty, and the Duke of York took up arms. 

Then began one of the most dreadful wars that ever raged in England, 
the war of the Roses. York was represented by the white rose, and the Lan- 
castrians by the red. The first battle was fought at St. Alban's in May, 
1455. Somerset was killed in this action, and a few years of peace followed 
his death; but in September, 1459, the war broke out again, and in the fol- 
lowing year the King was made prisoner, and Queen Margaret was obliged 
to fly to Scotland. 



508 WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 

Then it was agreed that Henry should continue to be King as long as he 
Hved, but that the Duke of York and his children should inherit the crown, 
and not Henry's own son. 

Queen Margaret could not patiently bear that her child should be 
deprived of his father's throne; she came back from Scotland, gathered an 
army, and marched against the Yorkists. In the battle which followed, the 
Duke of York and his second son were slain, and the son and several noble- 
men who had been taken by the Queen's party being put to death as traitors. 

But a few weeks afterward the Duke's eldest son, Edward, took his 
revenge at the battle of Mortimer's Cross, defeated the Lancastrians, and 
ascended the throne as Edward IV. in 1461. 

Edward overthrew Queen Margaret's forces at Towton, and a few years 
later destroyed her new army. He also captured King Henry and impris- 
oned him in the Tower of London. However, in 1470, Edward was defeated 
by the Yorkists, headed by the Earl of Warwick, the "King-maker." 

Edward was obliged to fly from the kingdom, and Henry was brought 
out of the Tower, and once more shown to the people as their sovereign. 
But this change of Kings lasted a very little while; Edward returned by 
stealth to England, and his brother, the Duke of Clarence, who hated War- 
wick, because he had not given him the crown, took revenge by deserting 
to his brother and assisting him to raise an army. The forces of the White 
and the Red Roses met at Barnet on Easter-day, 1471, and in the battle 
which followed Warwick was slain and the Lancastrians totally routed. 

Queen Margaret had been raising troops in France, but her army was 
totally destroyed at Tewkesbury; Henry was put to death in the Tower, and 
when Edward died he was succeeded by his son Edward V. in 1483. 

Edward V. was about thirteen years old when his father died. He had 
been placed under the care of his mother's relatives, and was residing with 
them at Ludlow Castle and keeping court as Prince of Wales, when his 
father's death occasioned his being called to London. On the way thither 
he was met by his uncle Richard, the Duke of Gloucester, who took him 
away from his mother's friends and sent them to prison. 

Gloucester brought the young King to London and placed him in the 



WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 609 

royal apartments at the Tower. His mother had taken refuge with her 
youngest son, Richard, and his sisters, in the Abbey of Westminster, 
Gloucester desired that Richard be sent to the Tower to keep his brother 
company, and soon had his wish. Both were murdered there. 

Then Gloucester spread the report that his nephew had no right to the 
throne. He said Edward IV. was really married to another lady when he 
made Elizabeth Woodville his Queen, and on the 24th of June, 1483, it 
was declared the children of Edward IV. could not lawfully inherit the 
crown. The Duke of Gloucester was then proclaimed King by the title 
of Richard III. 

The reign of Richard lasted little more than two years. In that time 
several good laws were made, but Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, grand- 
son of Owen Tudor, raised the standard of revolt, and in August, 1485, 
defeated Richard at Bosworth, the King being killed. 

Richard was the last of the Plantagenet Kings, who had ruled over 
England since the accession of Henry II. in 11 54 — a period of three hundred 
and thirty-one years. During that time the nation had made great advances 
in power, wealth, and freedom; and even while the country was suffering 
from the War of the Roses, England was thought happy beyond other king- 
doms of Europe, because the King could not impose taxes or make laws 
without the consent of Parliament. 



CHAPTER XXIX. 

First of the Tudors — "Bluff King Hal" and His Six Consorts— How He Was 
Rid of All of Them With the Exception of the Beautiful Katharine Parr — 
Henry VIII. the Founder of the British Navy, the Pride of the Nation. 

TWO months after the battle of Bosworth, Henry Tudor was crowned 
as Henry VII., and married the Princess Elizabeth of York, The 
Red and White Roses were thus united. 

There still lived a Prince of the royal house of York, Edward, Earl of 
Warwick, the son of the Duke of Clarence, who had been put to death by his 
brother. King Edward IV. Edward, however, was not successful in his 
efforts to regain the crown. 

Henry VII. died on the 21st of April, 1509, having reigned nearly twen- 
ty-four years. His wife, the gentle Queen Elizabeth of York, died six years 
before him. Besides his son Henry, the King left two daughters — Mar- 
garet, married to James IV., King of Scotland, and Mary. 

In the reign of Henry VII., Englishmen first sailed across the Atlantic, 
and touched the shores of America. 

Columbus discovered the great new world in 1492. About four years 
afterward, a Venetian mariner, named Cabot, who had settled at Bristol, 
discovered Newfoundland, the oldest of British colonies. 

Henry VII. was hardly thirty when he reached the throne. The temper 
of Henry seemed to promise the reign of a poetic dreamer rather than of 
a statesman. The spare form, the sallow face, the quick eye, lit now and 
then with a fire that told of his Celtic blood, the shy, solitary humor which 
was only broken by outburst of pleasant converse or genial sarcasm, told 
of an inner concentration and enthusiasm; and to the last Henry's mind 
remained imaginative and adventurous. 

He dreamed of crusades, and dwelt with delight on the legends of 
Arthur which Caxton gave to the world in the year of his accession. 

510 



FIRST OF THE TUDORS. 511 

His tastes were literary and artistic. He called foreign scholars to his 
court to serve as secretaries and historiographers; he trained his children 
in the highest culture of their day; he was a patron of the new printing 
press, a lover of books and of art. The chapel at Westminster which bears 
his name reflects his passion for architecture. 

But life gave Henry httle leisure for dreams or culture. From the first 
he had to struggle for sheer life against the dangers that beset him. A 
battle and treason had given him the throne; treason and a battle might 
dash him from it. His claim of blood was an uncertain and disputable one 
even by men of his own party. 

He stood attainted by solemn Act of Parliament; and though the judges 
ruled that the possession of the crown cleared all attaint, the stigma and 
peril remained. His victory had been a surprise; he could not trust the 
nobles; of fifty- two Peers he dared summon only a part to the Parliament 
which assembled after his coronation and gave its recognition to his claim 
of the crown. 

The act made no mention of hereditary right, or of any right by con- 
quest, but simply declared "that the inheritance of the crown should be, 
rest, remain, and abide in the most royal person of their Sovereign Lord, 
King Henry VH., and the heirs of his body lawfully ensuing." 

Such a declaration gave Henry a true Parliamentary title to his throne; 
and his consciousness of this was shown in a second act which assumed 
him to have been King since the death of Henry VI., and attainted Richard 
and his adherents as rebels and traitors. But such an act was too mani- 
festly unjust to give real strength to his throne; and was practically undone 
in 1495 when a new statute declared that no one should henceforth be 
attainted for serving a de facto King; and so insecure seemed Henry's title 
that no power acknowledged him as King save France and the Pope, and 
the support of France — gained as men believed by a pledge to abandon the 
English claims on Normandy and Guienne — was as perilous at home as it 
was useful abroad. 

During the. early years of his reign the country was troubled with local 
insurrections, and the turmoil within was quickened by encouragement 



512 FIRST OF THE TUDORS. 

from without. The Yorkist sympathies of the Earl of Kildare, the Deputy 
of Ireland, offered a starting-point for a descent from the west; while the 
sister of Edward IV., the Duchess Margaret of Burgundy, a fanatic in the 
cause of her house, was ready to aid any Yorkist attempt from Flanders. 

A trivial rising in i486 proved to be the prelude of a vast conspiracy in 
the following year. 

The victory of Stoke set Henry free to turn to the inner government of 
his realm. Parliament was only summoned on rare and critical occasions. 
It was but twice converted during the last thirteen years of Henry's reign. 

The chief aim of the King was the accumulation of a treasure which 
should relieve him from the need of ever appealing for its aid. Subsidies 
granted for the support of wars Henry evaded formed the base of a royal 
treasure which was swelled by the revival of dormant claims of the Crown, 
by the exaction of fines for the bieach of forgotten tenures, and by a host 
of petty extortions. 

Benevolences were again revived. He extorted gifts to the exchequer 
from men who lived handsomely on the ground that their wealth was 
manifest, and from those who lived plainly on the plea that economy had 
made them wealthy. 

So successful were these efforts that at the end of his reign the King 
bequeathed a hoard of two millions to his successor. 

In his foreign policy Henry clung to a system of peace. His aim was 
to keep England apart, independent of the two great continental powers 
which during the Wars of the Roses had made revolutions at their will. 
Peace indeed was what Henry needed, but it was hard to win. The old 
quarrel with France seemed indeed at an end; for it was Henry's pledge of 
friendship which had bought the French aid that enabled him to mount the 
throne. But in England itself hatred of the French burned fiercely as ever; 
and the growth of the French monarchy in extent and power through the 
policy of Louis XL, his extinction of the great feudatories, and the adminis- 
trative centralization he introduced, made even the coolest English states- 
man look on it as a danger to the realm. 

Only Brittany broke the long stretch of French coast which fronted 




HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS PRINCE ALBERT, THE 
QUEEN'S CONSORT. 



FIRST OF THE TUDORS. 515 

England; and the steady refusal of Edward IV. to suffer Louis to attack 
the Duchy showed the English sense of its value. 

Under its new King, however, Charles VIII., France showed her pur- 
pose of annexing Brittany. Henry was driven to find allies in the states 
which equally dreaded the French advance, in the house of Austria and in 
the new power of Spain, to call on Parliament for supplies, and to cross the 
channel in 1492 with twenty-five thousand men. But his allies failed him; 
and troubles at home brought Henry to listen to terms of peace on pay- 
ment of a heavy subsidy. 

The same political forecast, winning from very danger the elements of 
future security, was seen in the King's dealings with Scotland. From the 
moment England finally abandoned the fruitless effort to subdue it the 
story of Scotland had been a miserable one. 

Whatever peace might be concluded, a sleepless dread of the old danger 
from the south tied the country to an alliance with France, and this alliance 
dragged it into the vortex of the Hundred Years' War. 

But the effect of the struggle on the internal development of Scotland 
was utterly ruinous. The Houses of Douglas and of March which it raised 
into supremacy only interrupted their strife with England to battle fiercely 
with one another or to coerce their King. The power of the Crown sank 
into insignificance under the earher Sovereigns of the line of Stuart which 
succeeded to the throne on the extinction of the male line of Bruce in 1371. 

Invasions and civil feuds not only arrested but even rolled back the 
/lational industry and prosperity. The country was a chaos of disorder and 
misrule, in which the peasant and the trader were the victims of feudal out- 
rage. The Border became a lawless land, where robbery and violence 
reigned utterly without check. 

A great name at last broke the line of the Scottish Kings. Schooled by 
a long captivity in England, James I. returned to his realm in 1424 to be 
the ablest of her rulers as he was the first of her poets. 

In the twelve years of a wonderful reign justice and order were restored 
for the while, the Scotch Parliament organized, the clans of the Highlands 



516 FIRST OF THE TUDORS. 

assailed in their own fastnesses and reduced to swear fealty to the "Saxon" 
King. 

His death in 1437 was the signal for a struggle between the House of 
Douglas and the Crown, which lasted through half a century. Order, how- 
ever, crept gradually in; the exile of the Douglases left the Scottish 
monarch supreme in the Lowlands, while their dominion over the High- 
lands was secured by the ruin of the Lords of the Isles. 

The marriage of Margaret was to bring the House of Stuart at an after 
time to the English throne. But results as momentous and far more imme- 
diate followed on the marriage of Henry's sons. 

But great as were the issues of Henry's policy, it shrinks into littleness 
if we turn from it to the weighty movements which were now stirring the 
minds of men. 

The world was passing through changes more momentous than any it 
had witnessed since the victory of Christianity and the fall of the Roman 
Empire. 

Its physical bounds were suddenly enlarged. The discoveries of Coper- 
nicus revealed to man the secret of the universe. Portuguese mariners 
doubled the Cape of Good Hope and anchored their merchant fleets in the 
harbors of India. 

This sudden contact with new lands, new faiths, new races of men 
quickened the slumbering intelligence of Europe into a strange curiosity. 
The first book of voyages that told of the Western World was the travels 
of Amerigo Vespucci. 

At the very hour when the intellectual energy of the Middle Ages had 
sunk into exhaustion the capture of Constantinople by the Turks and the 
flight of its Greek scholars to the shores of Italy opened anew the science 
and literature of an older world. 

The exiled Greek scholars were welcomed in Italy; and Florence, so 
long the home of freedom and of art, became the home of an intellectual 
revival. The poetry of Homer, the drama of Sophocles, the philosophy of 
Aristotle and of Plato woke again to life beneath the shadow of the mighty 
dome with which Brunelleschi had just crowned the City by the Arno. 



FIRST OP THE TUDORS. 517 

All the restless energy which Florence had so long thrown into the 
cause of liberty she flung, now that her liberty was reft from her, into the 
cause of letters. The galleys of her merchants brought back manuscripts 
from the East as the most precious portion of their freight. 

In the palaces of her nobles fragments of classic sculpture ranged them- 
selves beneath the frescoes of Ghirlandajo. The recovery of a treatise of 
Cicero's or a tract of Sallust's from the dust of a monastic library was wel- 
comed by the group of statesmen and artists who gathered in the Rucellai 
gardens with a thrill of enthusiasm. 

Foreign scholars soon flocked over the Alps to learn Greek, the key of 
the new knowledge, from the Florentine teachers. Grocyn, a fellow of 
New College, was perhaps the first Englishman who studied under the 
Greek exile, Chancondylas; and the Greek lectures which he delivered in 
Oxford on his return in 1491 mark the opening of a new period in English 
history. 

But from the first it was manifest that the revival of letters would take 
a tone in England very different from the tone it had taken in Italy, a tone 
less literary, less largely human, but more moral, more religious, more prac- 
tical in its bearings both upon society and politics. 

The awakening of a rational Christianity, whether in England or in the 
Teutonic world at large, begins with the Italian studies of John Colet; and 
the vigor and earnestness of Colet were the best proof of the strength with 
which the new movement was to affect English religion. 

He came back to Oxford utterly untouched by the Platonic mysticism 
or the semi-serious infidelity which characterized the group of scholars round 
Lorenzo the Magnificent. The knowledge of Greek seems to have had one 
almost exclusive end for him, and this was a religious end. Greek was the 
key by which he could unlock the Gospels and the New Testament, and 
in these he thought that he could find a new religious standing-ground. 

It was this resolve of Colet to throw aside the traditional dogmas of his 
day and to discover a rational and practical religion in the Gospels them- 
selves which gave its peculiar stamp to the theology of the Renascence. 

His faith stood simply on a vivid realization of the person of Christ. In 



518 "BLUFF KING HAL"— HENRY VHL 

the prominence which such a view gave to the moral life, in his free criticism 
of the earlier Scriptures, in his tendency to simple forms of doctrine and 
confessions of faith, Colet struck the keynote of a mode of religious thought 
as strongly in contrast with that of the later Reformation as with that of 
Catholicism itself. 

But the new movement was far from being bounded by the walls of 
Oxford. The printing press was making letters the common property of 
all. In the last thirty years of the fifteenth century ten thousand editions 
of books and pamphlets are said to have been published throughout 
Europe. 

All the Latin authors were accessible to every student before the cen- 
tury closed. Almost all the more valuable authors of Greece were pub- 
lished in the twenty years that followed. The profound influence of this 
burst of the two great classic Hteratures on the world at once made itself 
felt. 

Experimental science, the science of philology, the science of politics, 
the critical investigation of religious truth, all took their origin from this 
Renascence. 

Art, if it lost much in purity and propriety, gained in scope and in the 
fearlessness of its love of Nature. 

Literature, if crushed for the* moment by the overpowering attraction 
of the great models of Greece and Rome, revived with a grandeur of form, 
a large spirit of humanity, such as it has never known since their day. 

In England the influence of the new movement extended far beyond 
the little group in which it had a few years before seemed concentrated. 
The great churchmen became its patrons. 

Langton, Bishop of Winchester, took delight in examining the young 
scholars of his episcopal family every evening, and sent all the most prom- 
ising of them to study across the Alps. 

Henry VIII. was not quite eighteen years old when he became King. 
He was a handsome and accomplished Prince. He was also more learned 
than most men of his time; for his great natural abilities had been carefully 
cultivated by his tutors. His frank, joyous manners charmed the people. 



"BLUFF KING HAV'— HENRY VIIl. 619 

and few suspected that a cruel, imperious temper lay hidden beneath those 
fair appearances. 

When once Henry had set his mind on a thing, no considerations of jus- 
tice or mercy could turn him aside from the pursuit of it. He was personally 
brave, but no conqueror. 

Through the later years of Henry VH. Katharine of Aragon had been 
recognized at the English court simply as Princess Dowager of Wales. 

Her betrothal to Prince Henry was looked upon as cancelled by his 
protest, and though the King was cautious not to break openly with Spain 
by sending her home, he was resolute not to sufifer a marriage which would 
bring a break with France and give Ferdinand an opportunity of dragging 
England into the strife between the two great powers of the west. 

But with the young King's accession this policy of cautious isolation 
was at once put aside. There were grave political reasons indeed for the 
quick resolve which bore down the opposition of counsellors like W^arham. 
As cool a head as that of Henry VH. was needed to watch without panic 
the rapid march of French- greatness. In mere extent France had grown 
with a starthng rapidity since the close of her long strife with England, 

From Calais to Bayonne, from the Jura to the channel, stretched a wide 
and highly organized realm, whose disciplined army and unrivaled artil- 
lery lifted it high above its neighbors in force of war. 

The efficiency of its army was seen in the sudden invasion, and conquest 
of Italy while England was busy with the pretended Duke of York, The 
passage of the Alps by Charles VIIL shook the whole political structure 
of Europe. 

In wealth, in political repute, in arms, in letters, in arts, Italy at this 
moment stood foremost among the peoples of Western Christendom, and 
the mastery which Charles won over it at a single blow lifted France at once 
above the states around her. 

It was this new and mighty power, a France that stretched from the 
Atlantic tO' the Mincio, that fronted the young King at his accession and 
startled him from his father's attitude of isolation. 

He sought Ferdinand's alliance none the less that it meant war, for his 



520 "BLUFF KING HAV— HENRY VIII. 

temper was haughty and adventurous, his pride dwelt on the older claims 
of England to Normandy and Guienne, and his devotion to the papacy 
drew him to listen to the cry of Julius II. and to long like a crusader to free 
Rome from the French pressure. 

Nor was it of less moment to a will such as the young King's that 
Katharine's passionate love for him had roused as ardent a love in return. 

Two months therefore after his accession the Infanta became the wife 
of Henry VIII. The influence of the King of Aragon became all-powerful 
in the English council chamber. Katharine spoke of her husband and her- 
self as Ferdinand's subjects. 

The young King wrote that he would obey Ferdinand as he had obeyed 
his own father. His obedience was soon to be tested. Ferdinand seized on 
his new ally as a pawn in the great game which he was playing on the 
European chess-board, a game which left its traces on the political and 
religious map of Europe for centuries after him. 

It was not without good ground that Henry VII. faced so coolly the 
menacing growth of France. He saw what his son failed to see, that the 
cool, wary King of Aragon was building up as quickly a power which was 
great enough to cope with it, and that grow as the two rivals might they 
were matched too evenly to render England's position a really dangerous 
one. 

While the French Kings aimed at the aggrandizement of a country, 
Ferdinand aimed at the aggrandizement of a House. Through the mar- 
riage of their daughter and heiress Juana with the son of the Emperor 
Maximilian, the Archduke Philip, the blood of Ferdinand and Isabel had 
merged in that of the House of Austria, and the aim of Ferdinand was 
nothing less than to give to the Austrian House the whole world of the 
west. 

Charles of Austria, the issue of Philip's marriage, had been destined from 
his birth by both his grandfathers, Maximilian and Ferdinand, to succeed 
to the Empire; Franche Comte and the state built up by the Burgundian 
Dukes in the Netherlands had already passed into his hands at the death 
of his father; the madness of his mother left him next heir of Castile; the 



"BLUFF KING HAL"—FIENRY VIII. 521 

death of Ferdinand would bring him Arag-on and the dominion of the 
Kings of Aragon in Southern Italy; that of Maximilian would add the Arch- 
duchy of Austria, with the dependencies in the south and its hopes of 
increase by the winning through marriage of the realms of Bohemia and 
Hungary. 

A war alone could drive France from the Milanese, but such a war might 
be waged by a league of European powers which would remain as a check 
upon France, should she attempt to hinder this vast union of states in the 
hand of Charles or to wrest from him the Imperial Crown. 

Such a league, the Holy League as it was called from the accession to 
it of the Pope, Ferdinand was enabled to form at the close of 151 1 by the 
kinship of the Emperor, the desire of Venice and Julius II. to free Italy 
from the stranger, and the warlike temper of Henry VIII. 

Dreams of new Cregys and Agincourts roused the ardor of the young 
King; and the campaign of 1512 opened with his avowal of the old claims 
on his "heritage of France." 

But the subtle intriguer in whose hands he lay pushed steadily to his 
own great ends. The League drove the French from the Milanese. An 
English army which landed at Fontarabia to attack Guienne found itself 
used as a covering force to shield Ferdinand's seizure of Navarre, the one 
road through which France could attack his grandson's heritage of Spain. 

The troops mutinied and sailed home; Scotland, roused again by the 
danger of France, threatened invasion; the world scoffed at Englishmen as 
useless for war. 

Henry's spirit, however, rose with the need. In 15 13 he landed in 
person in the north of France, and a sudden rout of the French cavalry in 
an engagement near Guinegate, which received from its bloodless character 
the name of the Battle of the Spurs, gave him the fortresses of Terouenne 
and Tournay. 

A victory yet more decisive awaited his arm^s at home. A Scotch army 
crossed the border, with James IV. at its head; but on the 9th of September 
it was met by an English force under the Earl of Surrey at Flodden in 
Northumberland. 



522 "BLUFF KING HAL"— HENRY VHL 

James "fell near his banner," and his army was driven off the field with 
heavy losses. 

Flushed with this new glory, the young King was resolute to continue 
the war when in the opening of 15 14 he found himself left alone by the dis- 
solution of the League. Ferdinand had gained his ends, and had no mind 
to fight longer simply to realize the dreams of his son-in-law. 

Henry had indeed gained much. The might of France was broken. 
The Papacy was restored to freedom. England had again figured as a 
great power in Europe. 

But the millions left by his father were exhausted, his subjects had been 
drained by repeated subsidies, and, furious as he was at the treachery of his 
Spanish ally, Henry was driven to conclude a peace. 

Through all the changes of Henry VHI.'s terrible career his home was 
a home of letters. His boy, Edward VI., was a fair scholar in both the 
classical languages. His daughter Mary wrote good Latin letters. EHza- 
beth began every day with an hour's reading in the Greek Testament, the 
tragedies of Sophocles, or the orations of Demosthenes. 

The ladies of the court caught the royal fashion and were tound poring 
over the pages of Plato. Widely as Henry's ministers differed from each 
other, they all agreed in sharing and fostering the culture around them. 

A beautiful young lady, named Anne Boleyn, became one of the Queen's 
attendants, and Henry was so charmed with her that he resolved to get rid 
of his wife in order to marry Anne. He complained that his conscience was 
troubled because he had married his brother's widow, and asked the Pope 
(not the one who had given permission for the marriage) to command him 
to put away Katharine. 

The Pope put off an answer as long as he could, and Henry, enraged at 
the delay, resolved that the Pope should have no more authority in England. 
He then procured a divorce from the new Archbishop of Canterbury, 
Thomas Cranmer, without the consent of the Pope. He married Anne 
Boleyn, and in 1534 it was declared in ParHament that the Pope had no 
authority in the Church of England. 

Henry heaped honors upon his new Queen, and appeared to be very 



"BLUFF KING HAV— HENRY VIII. 523 

fond of her; but soon the King began to admire Jane Seymour, one of 
Anne's ladies in waiting; and, in order to get rid of Anne, he caused her to 
be accused of horrible crimes and condemned to death. Only three years 
after she had been crowned Queen, her head was cut off in the Tower. She 
left an infant daughter, named Elizabeth. 

The very day after poor Anne's execution, the King married Jane Sey- 
mour, who survived her marriage eighteen months. She died a few 
days after she had become the mother of Edward, afterwards Edward VI. 

Henry next asked in marriage a German Princess, Anna of Cleves. He 
had seen a portrait of her which was beautiful, but when she arrived in 
England he found she was much less handsome than her picture, and his 
favorite minister, Cromwell, who had advised the marriage, was disgraced 
and put to death. Anna herself was easily persuaded to consent that the 
marriage should be dissolved. 

Henry chose for his fifth wife Katharine Howard; but she had been 
Queen but a little while when Henry put her to death without mercy. 

Katharine Parr became his sixth wife. She was a pious and learned 
woman, and a most patient nurse to the King, who became miserably dis- 
eased toward the close of his life. She outlived him. 

When Henry began to reign, England and most other nations of 
Europe had long been subject to the authority of the Pope in matters 
relating to religion. In 15 17 Martin Luther began, in Germany, to preach 
and write against the Church of Rome, and a great multitude separated 
themselves from that church. Before many years had passed away, several 
of the German states, the Kingdoms of Denmark and Sweden, and half of 
the cantons of Switzerland had thrown off their allegiance to the Pope. 

In England there appeared, at first, to be little prospect of any change 
in the church, for Henry was so shocked at the doctrines of Luther that he 
wrote a book against them. This pleased the Pope so much that he con- 
ferred on him a new title, "Defender of the Faith." English sovereigns 
have borne it ever since; but the faith which they have to defend now is that 
of the Church of England. 

Notwithstanding the King's indignation at Luther, many of his books 



624 "BLUFF KING HAL"— HENRY VHL 

found their way into England, and were much read; and English Bibles 
began to be brought into the country. At that time it was against the law 
to print them in England; but some learned zealous men went over to Ger- 
many and Switzerland and printed them there. 

Henry lost his regard for the Pope when he could not obtain from him 
permission to divorce Queen Katharine; and in 1534 caused his subjects 
to renounce the authority of Rome. Four years afterward he gave leave 
for a Bible to be placed in every parish church; and in the year 1539 the 
Scriptures were for the first time printed in England. 

These Bibles were very large; they were chained to the reading-desk, 
round which, in some of the churches, groups of working-men gathered in 
the evening when the labors of the day were done and listened while one 
more learned than the rest read aloud to his companions. 

But though Henry allowed the people to hear the Bible read, he would 
not allow them to interpret it differently from himself, and adhered in 
almost all points to the Romish doctrine. 

Henry was the founder of the English navy, and established the royal 
dockyards at Deptford, Woolwich and Portsmouth. He died on the 28th 
of January, 1547, after a reign of nearly thirty-eight years. 

He left three children: Edward, the son of Jane Seymour, who was 
nine years of age when his father died; Elizabeth, the daughter of Anne 
Boleyn, who was thirteen; and JMary, the daughter of Katharine of Ara- 
gon, who was thirty-one. He had given them a thorough education, and 
the little Prince was already remarkable for his love of knowledge. He was 
also a very amiable boy, and his early wisdom and piety gave promise of a 
happy reign; but he lived only a few years and was too young to be King 
except in name. 



CHAPTER XXX. 

Edward VI., Successor of His Father, Henry VIII. — Never Really King, Being a 
Minor — Brief Beign of "Bloody Mary," and the Glorious Period Covered by 
the Sovereignty of Elizabeth, the "Virgin Gueen" — Last of the Tudors — 
Her Successor the Son of the Beautiful Mary, Queen of Scots — James I., 
House of Stuart — Charles I. and His Unhappy Beath. 

HE actual rulers of England during the reign of Edward VI. were, 
first, his uncle Edward Seymour, Duke of Somerset, and then Dudley, 
Earl of Warwick, afterward Duke of Northumberland. It had been a 
favorite plan with Henry VIII. to marry his son Edward to the little Mary, 
Queen of Scotland. Mary was the granddaughter of James IV., who fell at 
Flodden; she had become the Queen of Scots even in her cradle, for her 
father, James V., died a few days after her birth. If she had been given in 
marriage to Edward, the whole island would have been united under one 
ruler, and there would have been an end to the wars between England and 
Scotland. Some of the Scottish Lords were willing to consent to the mar- 
riage; but Henry was impatient to make them all do so, and went to war. 

After the death of Henry VIII. Somerset continued the war, and entered 
Scotland at the head of seventy thousand men. The Scots raised a still 
larger force, but they were overthrown with great slaughter at Pinkie, in 
September, 1547. 

Somerset favored the Reformation, and allowed Cranmer to make 
many changes in the services of the church. The mass was abolished; the 
Bible was allowed to^ be freely read; and on Whitsunday, 1549, the English 
Book of Common Prayer was enjoined to be used for the first time in every 
parish church throughout the kingdom. In general, the priests consented 
to these changes; but some of the bishops refused to do so, and were 
deprived of their sees. 

Edward died in 1553, and his uncle, Duke of Northumberland, con- 
cealed the fact for several days in order to secure the Crown to Lady Jane 

535 



526 EDWARD VI. TO CHARLES I. 

Grey, his daughter-in-law, but Mary, eldest daughter of Henry VIII., and 
sister of Edward VI., was proclaimed Queen. 

The triumph of Mary was a fatal blow at the system of despotism which 
Henry VIII. had established. It was a system that rested not so much on 
the actual strength possessed by the Crown as on the absence of any effec- 
tive forces of resistance. 

At Henry's death the one force of opposition which had developed itself 
was that of the Protestants, but whether in numbers or political weight the 
Protestants were as yet of small consequence, and their resistance did little 
to break the general drift of both nation and King. 

For, great as were the changes which Henry had wrought in the sever- 
ance of England from the Papacy and the establishment of the ecclesiastical 
supremacy of the Crown, they were wrought with fair assent from the 
people at large; and when once the discontent had been appeased England 
as a whole acquiesced in the conservative system of the King. 

This national union, however, was broken by the Protectorate. At the 
moment when it had reached its height the royal authority was seized by 
a knot of nobles and recklessly used to further the revolutionary projects 
of a small minority of the people. From the hour of this revolution a new 
impulse was given to resistance. 

The older nobility, the bulk of the gentry, the wealthier merchants, the 
great mass of the people, found themselves thrown by the very instinct of 
conservatism into opposition to the Crown. 

It was only by foreign hirelings that revolt was suppressed. 

At the opening of August Mary entered London in triumph. Short 
and thin in figure, with a face drawn and colorless that told of constant 
ill-health, there was little in the outer seeming of the new Queen to recall 
her father; but her hard, bright eyes, her manlike voice, her fearlessness and 
self-will, told of her Tudor blood, as her skill in music, her knowledge of 
languages, her love of learning, spoke of the culture and refinement of 
Henry's court. 

Though Mary was thirty-seven years old, the strict retirement in which 
she had lived had left her as ignorarit of the actual temper of England as 



EDWARD VI. TO CHARLES I. 527 

England was ignorant of her own. She had made a resolve to adhere to 
her father's system till her brother came of age to rule, and England 
believed her to be longing, like itself, simply for a restoration of what Henry 
had kft. 

The belief was confirmed by her earlier actions. The changes of the 
Protectorate were treated as null and void. Gardiner, Henry's minister, 
was drawn from the Tower to take the lead as Chancellor at the Queen's 
Council-board. Bonner and the deposed Bishops were restored to their 
sees. Ridley with the others who had displaced them were again expelled. 
Latimer, as a representative of the extreme Protestants, was sent to the 
Tower; and the foreign refugees, as anti-sacramentarians, were ordered to 
leave England. 

On an indignant protest from Cranmer against reports that he was 
ready to abandon the new reforms the Archbishop was sent for his seditious 
demeanor to the Tower, and soon put on his trial for treason with Lady 
Jane Grey, her husband, and two of his brothers. Each pleaded guilty; 
but no attempt was made to carry out the sentence of death. 

In all this England went with the Queen. The popular enthu-siasm 
hardly waited in fact for the orders of the Government. The whole system 
which had been pursued during Edward's reign fell with a sudden crash. 
London indeed retained much of its Protestant sympathy, but over the rest 
of the country the tide of reaction swept without a check. 

The married priests were driven from their churches, the images were 
replaced. In many parishes the new Prayer-Book was set aside and the 
Mass restored. The Parliament which met in October annulled the laws 
made respecting religion during the past reign, and re-established the form 
of service as used in the last year of Henry VIII. 

Up to this point the temper of England went fairly with that of the 
Queen. But there were from the first signs of a radical difference between 
the aim of Mary and that of her people. With the restoration of her father's 
system the nation as a whole was satisfied. 

Mary, on the other hand, looked on such a restoration simply as a step 
toward a complete revival of the system which Henry had done away. 



EDWARD VI. TO CHARLES I. 

Through long years of suffering and peril her fanaticism had been patiently 
brooding over the hope of restoring to England its older religion. 

She believed, as she said at a later time to the Parliament, that "she had 
been predestined and preserved by God to the succession of the Crown for 
no other end save that He might make use of her above all else in the bring- 
ing back of the realm to the Catholic faith." 

She had in fact not ventured as yet to refuse the title of "Head of the 
Church next under God" or to disclaim the powers which the Act of 
Supremacy gave her; on the contrary she used these powers in the regu- 
lation of preaching as her father had used them. 

The strenuous resistance with which her proposal to set aside the new 
Prayer Book was met in Parliament warned her of the difficulties that 
awaited any projects of radical change. The proposal was carried, but only 
after a hot conflict which lasted over six days and which left a third of the 
Lower House still opposed to it. 

Their opposition by no means implied approval of the whole series of 
religious changes of which the Prayer Book formed a part, for the more 
moderate Catholics were pleading at this time for prayers in the vulgar 
tongue. But it showed how far men's minds were from any spirit of blind 
reaction or blind compliance with the royal will. 

The temper of the Parliament indeed was very different from that of 
the Houses which had knelt before Henry VHI. If it consented to repeal 
the enactment which rendered her mother's marriage invalid and to declare 
Mary "born in lawful matrimony," it secured the abolition of all the new 
treasons and felonies created in the two last reigns. 

The demand for their abolition showed that jealousy of the growth of 
civil tyranny had now spread from the minds of philosophers like More to 
the minds of common Englishmen. Still keener was the jealousy of any 
marked revolution in the religious system which Henry had established. 

The wish to return to the obedience of Rome lingered indeed among 
some of the clergy and in the northern shires. But elsewhere the system 
of a national Church was popular, and it was backed by the existence of a 
large and influential class who had been enriched by the abbey lands. 



EDWARD VI. TO CHARLES I. 629 

Forty thousand families had profited by the spoil, and watched anxiously 
any approach of danger to their new possessions, such as submission to 
the Papacy was likely to bring about. On such a submission, however, 
Mary was resolved: and it was to gain strength for such a step that she 
determined to seek a husband from her mother's house. 

The policy of Ferdinand of Aragon, so long held at bay by adverse 
fortune, was now to find its complete fulfilment. To one line of the house 
of Austria, that of Charles the Fifth, had fallen not only the Imperial Crown, 
but the great heritage of Burgundy, Aragon, Naples, Castile, and the 
Castilian dependencies in the New World. 

To a second, that of the Emperor's brother Ferdinand, had fallen the 
Austrian duchies, Bohemia and Hungary. The marriage of Katharine was 
now, as it seemed, to bear its fruits by the union of Mary with a son of 
Charles, and the placing a third Austrian line upon the throne of England. 

The gigantic scheme of bringing all western Europe together under the 
rule of a single family seemed at last to draw to its realization. 

The Queen's subjects, of whatever religion they might be, were greatly 
displeased when they heard she meant to marry Philip of Spain, the son of 
the Emperor Charles. Philip was many years younger than Mary, and 
notorious for a proud, stern, gloomy disposition. It was well known that 
he hated a free government. Englishmen feared he would destroy their 
liberties, and dreaded him the more because he possessed powerful fleets and 
armies. 

The Spanish ambassador, who came to conclude the marriage, nar- 
rowly escaped being torn to pieces by the populace, but Mary persisted in 
her course and married the loathed Spaniard. 

Then the fires of persecution were lighted. It was an age of intoler- 
ance, and the party in power believed it right to destroy those opponents they 
could not convert. Mary sent hundreds of Protestants to the stake, thereby 
gaining the name of "Bloody Mary." 

Among these were many great and good men, like Ridley and Latimer, 
who were burned together at Oxford. 

"Be of good cheer, Master Ridley," said his aged friend, "and play the 



530 EDWARD VI. TO CHARLES I. 

man. We shall this day light such a candle, by God's grace, in England, as 
I trust shall never be put out." 

From February, 1555, to November, 1558, two hundred and ninety per- 
sons were burned alive, besides many who perished in prison. 

Mary was very miserable. Philip, Mary's husband. King of Spain, 
induced his wife to go to war with France, the consequence being that the 
English lost the city of Calais, after holding it more than two hundred 
years. 

Just before Mary died, which was on November 17th, 1558, she said to 
those about her, "If you will open my body after my death, you will find 
'Calais' written on my heart." 

Queen Mary was not lamented; on the contrary, as soon as it was known 
that she was dead the bells of all the churches in London rang joyfully for 
the accession of her sister; every open space was lit up with bonfires; and 
the citizens set out tables in the streets, and invited every one who went by 
to feast and make merry in honor of Queen EHzabeth, her young sister — and 
a Protestant. 

Queen Elizabeth was twenty-five years of age when she ascended the 
throne; tall, handsome, and majestic, the Queenly dignity of her behavior 
being mingled with a kind and cheerful condescension which won all hearts. 
She was a woman of extraordinary sagacity, and gave proof of it the first 
day of her reign in the choice of her counsellors and advisers. 

The next heir after Mary and EHzabeth was the young Queen of Scots, 
the granddaughter of Henry VII. 's eldest daughter, Margaret; but, as she 
was a Roman Catholic, the English did not want her on the throne, and hence 
were anxious for Elizabeth to marry. This she did not do, but remained 
the "Virgin Queen" throughout the nearly forty-two years of her reign. 

As soon as Parliament assembled, the authority of the Pope was once 
more renounced, the Queen declared supreme in church and state, mass 
was abolished, and the Book of Common Prayer restored. Nearly all par- 
ish priests conformed to the new laws, and fourteen Bishops, who refused, 
were deprived of their sees. The new Bishops were learned and pious men 
who had been forced to hide themselves or flee during the reign of Mary. 



EDWARD VI. TO CHARLES I. 533 

The navy had dwindled during the reign of Mary, and Elizabeth repaired 
the evil without loss of time. She built ships of war, fortified the Medway, 
and established well-stocked arsenals in the chief towns along the coast. 
She encouraged the manufacture of gunpowder, instead of buying it from 
foreigners. 

The merchants and people of the seaport towns followed their sover- 
eign's example, and in the fourth year of her reign Elizabeth was able to 
send to sea a fleet with twenty thousand fighting men on board. 

Elizabeth also coined new silver money, composed of real metal, and the 
debased coins of previous reigns was replaced; had the Bible and Book of 
Common Prayer printed in the Welsh language; befriended the arts, 
sciences, trades, commerce, discoveries of all sorts, exploration and manu- 
factures; destroyed the great Spanish Armada; encouraged literature to 
such an extent that the "Elizabethan Period" is regarded as the most bril- 
liant in English literature. 

During her reign new mines of copper and other minerals were discov- 
ered, and the first brass manufactory was set up in England. The first paper- 
mill also was erected at Dartford, in Kent. 

Among the famous writers of that period were the poets Spenser, 
Shakespeare, and Ben Jonson, and the philosopher Francis Bacon. 

The East India Company was founded in the reign of Elizabeth. It 
was at first only for trade to India and China, but it long ruled all India, and 
was by far the most wealthy and powerful body of merchants in the world. 

Three Irish rebelHons caused the "Good Queen Bess," as the people 
called her, much anxiety, as the island had become a mere desert. In her 
wars Elizabeth was the victor, for she showed the spirit of a true warrior. 

There was one act of her long reign which Elizabeth never ceased to 
regret, and that was her order for the execution of Mary, Queen of Scots. 
Elizabeth, however, felt that her kingdom was never safe while her beauti- 
ful, ambitious and aggressive rival lived; and she could not see far enough 
into the future to ascertain that her own successor on the throne was to be 
the son oi this same Queen of the Scots. 

Meanwhile, the people itself was waking to a new sense of national free- 



534 EDWARD VI. TO CHARLES 1. 

dom. Elizabeth saw the lorces, political and religious, which she had stub- 
bornly held in check for a half a century, pressing on her irresistibly. 

In spite of the rarity of its assemblings, in spite of high words and 
imprisonment and dextrous management, the Parliament had quietly gained 
a power which, at her accession, the Queen could never have dreamed of 
its possessing. 

Step by step the Lower House had won the freedom of its members 
from the arrest save by its own permission, the right of punishing and 
expelling members for crimes committed within its walls, and of determin- 
ing all matter relating to elections. The more important claim of freedom 
of speech had brought on from time to time a series of petty conflicts in 
which Elizabeth generally gave way. But on this point the Commons still 
shrank from any consistent repudiation of the Queen's assumption of 
control. 

A bold protest of Peter Wentworth against her claim to exercise such 
a control in 1575 was met indeed by the House itself with his committal 
to the Tower; and the bolder questions which he addressed to the Parlia- 
ment of 1588, "Whether this Council is not a place for every member of the 
same freely and without control, by bill or speech, to utter any of the griefs 
of the Commonwealth," brought on him a fresh imprisonment at the hands 
of the Council, which lasted till the dissolution of the Parliament and with 
which the Commons declined to interfere. 

But while vacillating in its assertion of the rights of individual members, 
the House steadily claimed for itself a right to discuss even the highest 
matters of State. Three great subjects, the succession, the Church, and the 
regulation of trade, had been regarded by every Tudor sovereign as lying 
exclusively within the competence of the Crown. 

But Parliament had again and again asserted its right to consider the 
succession. It persisted in spite of censure and rebufif in presenting schemes 
of ecclesiastical reform. And three years before Elizabeth's death it dealt 
boldly with matters of trade. 

Complaints made in 1571 of the licenses and monopolies by which 
internal and external commerce were fettered, were repressed by a royal 



EDWARD VI. TO CHARLES /. B35 

reprimand as matters neither pertaining to the Commons nor within the 
compass of their understanding. 

When the subject was again stirred nearly twenty years afterward, Sir 
Edward Hoby was sharply rebuked by "a great personage" for his com- 
plaint of the illegal exactions made by the Exchequer. 

But the bill which he promoted was sent up to the Lords in spite of 
this, and at the close of Elizabeth's reign the storm of popular indignation 
which had been roused by the growing grievance nerved the Commons, 
in 1601, to a decisive struggle. 

It was in vain that the ministers opposed a bill for the Abolition of 
Monopolies, and after four days of vehement debate the tact of Elizabeth 
taught her to give way. 

She acted with her usual ability, declared her previous ignorance of 
the existence of the evil, thanked the House for its interference, and quashed 
at a single blow every monopoly that she had granted. 

Elizabeth's defeat was a real one. Political freedom was proving itself 
again the master in the long struggle with the Crown. Nor in her yet 
fiercer struggle against religious freedom could Elizabeth look forward to 
any greater success. 

The sharp suppression of the Martin Marprelate pamphlets was far 
from damping the courage of the Presbyterians. Cartwright, who had 
been appointed by Lord Leicester to the mastership of an hospital at War- 
wick, was bold enough to organize his system of Church discipline among 
the clergy of that country and of Northamptonshire. 

His example was widely followed; and the general gatherings of the 
whole ministerial body of the clergy and the smaller assemblies for each 
diocese or shire, which in the Presbyterian scheme bore the name of Synods 
and Classes, began to be held in many parts of England for the purposes 
of debate and consultation. 

The new organization was quickly suppressed, but Cartwright was 
saved from the banishment which Whitgift demanded by a promise of sub- 
mission, and his influence steadily widened. With Presbyterianism itself 
indeed Elizabeth was strong enough to deal. Its dogmatism and bigotry 



536 EDWARD VI. TO CHARLES I. 

was opposed to the better temper of the age, and it never took any popular 
hold on England. 

But if Presbyterianism was limited to a few, Puritanism, the religious 
temper which sprang from a deep conviction of the truth of Protestant doc- 
trines and of the falsehood of Catholicism, had become through the struggle 
with Spain and the Papacy the temper of three-fourths of the English 
people. 

The policy of Elizabeth did its best to give to the Presbyterians the 
support of Puritanism. Her establishment of the Ecclesiastical Commis- 
sion had given fresh life and popularity to the doctrines which it aimed at, 
crushing by drawing together two currents of opinion which were in them- 
selves perfectly distinct. 

The Presbyterian platform of Church discipline had as yet been embraced 
by the clergy only, and by few among the clergy. 

On the other hand, the wish for a reform in the Liturgy, the dislike of 
"superstitious usages," of the use of the surplice, the sign of the cross in 
baptism, the gift of the ring in marriage, the posture of kneeling at the 
Lord's Supper, was shared by a large number of the clergy and the laity 
alike. 

At the opening of Elizabeth's reign almost all the higher Churchmen 
save Parker were opposed to them, and a motion for their abolition in Con- 
vocation was lost but by a single vote. The temper of the country gentle- 
men on this subject was indicated by that of Parliament; and it was well 
known that the wisest of the Queen's Councilors, Burleigh, Walsingham, 
and Knollys, were at one time in this matter with the gentry. 

If their common persecution did not wholly succeed in fusing these 
two sections of religious opinion into one, it at any rate gained for the Pres- 
byterians a general sympathy on the part of the Puritans. 

Elizabeth's death marked one of the turning points of English history. 
The age of the Renascence and of the New Monarchy passed away with 
the Queen. The whole face of the realm had been silently changing during 
the later years of her reign. 

The kingdom which had been saved from ruin but fifty years before by 



EDWARD VI. TO CHARLES I. 537 

the jealousies of its neighbors now stood in the forefront of European 
powers. France clung to its friendship. Spain trembled beneath its blows. 
The Papacy had sullenly withdrawn from a fruitless strife with the heretic 
island. 

The last of the Queen's labors had laid Ireland at her feet, and her death 
knit Scotland to its ancient enemy by the tie of a common king. 

Within England itself the change was as great. Religious severance, 
the most terrible of national dangers, had been averted by the patience and 
the ruthlessness of the Crown. The ecclesiastical compromise of the Tudors 
had at last won the adhesion of the country at large. 

Nor was the social change less remarkable. The natural growth of 
wealth and a patient good government had gradually put an end to all 
social anarchy. The dread of feudal revolt had passed forever away. The 
baronage had finally made way for a modern nobility, but this nobility, 
sprung from the court of the Tudors, and dependent for its existence on the 
favor of the Crown, had none of that traditional hold on the people at 
large which made the feudal lords so formidable a danger. 

The disappearance of these dangers brought with it a revival of the 
craving for liberty and self-government. Once awakened, such craving 
found a solid backing in the material progress of the time, in the upgrowth 
of new social classes, in the intellectual development of the people, and in 
the new boldness and vigor of the national temper. 

The long outer peace, the tranquillity of the realm, the lightness of 
taxation till the outbreak of war with Spain, had spread prosperity through- 
out the land. Even the war failed to hinder the enrichment of the trading 
classes. The increase remained at least as great through the forty years 
that followed, and the erection of stately houses, marriages with noble 
families, and the purchase of great estates, showed the rapid growth of the 
merchant class in wealth and social importance. 

London above all was profiting by the general advance. The rapidity 
of its growth awoke jealousy of the royal Council. One London merchant 
founded the great hospital and school of the Charter House. Another 



EDWARD VI. TO CHARLES I. 

brought the New River from its springs at Chadwell and Amwell to supply 
London with pure water. 

Ere many years had gone the wealth of the great capital was to tell on 
the whole course of English history. 

Nor was the merchant class alone in this elevation. If the greater nobles 
no longer swayed the State, the spoil of the Church lands, and the general 
growth of national wealth, were raising the lesser landowners into a new 
social power. An influence which was to play a growing part in our history, 
the influence of the gentry, of the squires — as they were soon to be called — 
told more and more on Enghsh politics. In all but name indeed the leaders 
of this class were the equals of the peers whom they superseded. 

While a new social fabric was thus growing up on the wreck of feudal 
England new influences were telling on its development. The immense 
advance of the people as a whole in knowledge and intelligence throughout 
the reign of Elizabeth was in itself a revolution. 

The hold of tradition, the unquestioning awe which formed the main 
strength of the Tudor throne, had been sapped and weakened by the intellec- 
tual activity of the Renascence, by its endless questionings, its historic 
research, its philosophic skepticism. 

On the other hand the nation was learning to rely on itself, to believe 
in its own strength and vigor, to crave for a share in the guidance of its own 
life. His conflict with the two great spiritual and temporal powers of 
Christendom, his strife at once with the Papacy and the House of Austria, 
had roused in every Englishman a sense of supreme manhood, which told, 
however slowly, on his attitude toward the Crown. 

What hindered this force from telling as yet fully on national affairs 
was the breadth and largeness which characterized the temper of the 
Renascence. Through the past half-century the aims of Englishmen had 
been drawn far over the narrow bounds of England itself to every land and 
every sea; while their mental activity spent itself as freely on poetry and 
science as on religion and politics. 

For a hundred years past men had been living in the midst of a spiritual 
revolution. Not only the world about them but the world of thought and 



EDWARD VI. TO CHARLES I. 539 

feeling within every breast had been utterly transformed. The work of the 
sixteenth century had wrecked that tradition or religion, of knowledge, of 
political and social order, which had been accepted without question by the 
Middle Ages. With the deepening sense of human individuality came a 
deepening conviction of the boundless capacities of the human soul. Not 
as a theological dogma, but as a human fact man knew himself to be an 
all but infinite power, whether for good or for ill. 

The drama towered into sublimity as it painted the strife of mighty 
forces within the breasts of Othello or Mrcbeth. Poets passed into meta- 
physicians as they strove to unravel the workings of conscience within the 
soul. From that hour one dominant influence told on human action: and 
all the various energies that had been called into life by the age that Vv^as 
passing away were seized, concentrated, and steadied to a definite aim by 
the spirit of religion. 

The popularity of the Bible had been growing fast from the day Bishop 
Bonner set up the first six copies in St. Paul's. 

Religion was only one of the causes for this sudden popularity of the 
Bible. The book was equally important in its bearing on the intellectual 
development of the people. All the prose literature of England, save the 
forgotten tracts of Wyclif, has grown up since the translation of the Scrip- 
tures by Tyndall and Coverdale. 

So far as the nation at large was concerned, no history, no romance, 
hardly any poetry save the little-known verse of Chaucer, existed in the 
English tongue when the Bible was ordered to be set up in churches. 

Sunday after Sunday, day after day, the crowds that gathered round 
the Bible in the nave of St. Paul's, or the family group that hung on its 
words in the devotional exercises at home, were leavened with a new liter- 
ature. Legend and annal, war song and psalm, State-roll and biography, 
the mighty voices of prophets, the parables of Evangelists, stories of mission 
journeys, of perils by the sea and among the heathen, philosophic argu- 
ments — all were flung broadcast over minds unoccupied for the most part 
by any rival learning. 



540 EDWARD VI. TO CHARLES I. 

The language of the Hebrew, the idiom of the Hellenistic Greek, lent 
themselves with a curious felicity to the purposes of translation. 

As a mere literary monument the English version of the Bible remains 
the noblest example of the English tongue, while its perpetual use made 
it from the instant of its appearance the standard of our language. 

For the moment its literary effect was less than its social. The power 
of the book over the mass of Englishmen showed itself in a thousand super- 
ficial ways, and in none more conspicuously than in the influence it exerted 
on ordinary speech. 

It formed the whole literature which was practically accessible to ordi- 
nary Englishmen. Even to common minds this familiarity with grand 
poetic imagery in prophet and apocalypse gave a loftiness and ardor of 
expression that with all its tendency to exaggeration and bombast we may 
prefer to the slipshod vulgarisms of to-day. 

Far greater than its efifect on literature or social phrase was the efifect 
of the Bible on the character of the people at large. The Bible was as yet 
the one book which was familiar to every Englishman; and everywhere its 
words, as they fell on ears which custom had not deadened to their force 
and beauty, kindled a startling enthusiasm. 

The whole moral effect which is produced nowadays by the religious 
newspaper, the tract, the essay, the missionary report, the sermon, was 
then produced by the Bible alone; and its effect in this way, however dis- 
passionately we examine it, was simply amazing. 

The whole nation became a church. The problems of life and death, 
whose questionings found no answer in the higher minds of Shakespeare's 
day, pressed for an answer not only from noble and scholar, but from farmer 
and shopkeeper in the age that followed him. The answer they found was 
almost of necessity a Calvinistic answer. 

It was in each Christian conscience that the strife was waged between 
Heaven and Hell. Not as one of a body, but as a single soul, could each 
Christian claim his part in the mystery of redemption. 

With such a conception of human life Puritanism offered the natural 



EDWARD VI. TO CHARLES I. 541 

form for English religion at a time when the feeling with which religion 
could most easily ally itself was the sense of individuality. 

It was thus by its own natural development that the temper of English- 
men became above all religious, and that their religion took in most cases 
the form of Calvinism, But the rapid spread of Calvinism was aided by 
outer causes as well as inner ones. 

The reign of Elizabeth had been a long struggle for national existence. 
When Shakespeare first trod the streets of London it was a question whether 
England should still remain England or whether it should sink into a vassal 
of Spain. 

In that long contest the creed which Henry and Elizabeth had con- 
structed, the strange compromise of old tradition with new convictions 
which the country was gradually shaping into a new religion for itself, had 
done much for England's victory. It had held England together as a 
people. It had hindered any irreparable severance of the nation into war- 
ring churches. But it had done this unobserved. To the bulk of men the 
victory seemed wholly due to the energy and devotion of Calvinism. 

Upon Elizabeth's death, in 1603, March 24th, the Crown passed to the 
Stuarts, of Scotland, Elizabeth being the last of the House of Tudor, whose 
members had reigned one hundred and eighteen years. 

James VI., of Scotland, became King James I., of England. He was 
the son of Mary, Queen of Scots, and the grandson of Margaret, eldest 
daughter of Henry VII., and since his accession English Kings have been 
the rulers of Scotland, as well as England and Wales. 

James was unfortunate in most things. He thought to exercise the 
power as sovereign as did Elizabeth, but Parliament refused to accede; he 
was unlucky in war, and when he died, in 1625, England hoped for better 
times. In James' reign the famous Gunpowder Plot of 1605 was exposed; 
there was high religious feeling of an unfriendly nature between differing 
sects; but, as an O'ffset, England added largely to her possessions through 
the activity of her daring navigators. 

Charles I., James I.'s son, was of an indifferent nature, wishing to please 
everyone and quick to make promises — most of which he never kept. He 



542 EDWARD VI. TO CHARLES I. 

enforced the severe laws against Catholics, quarreled with Parliament, and 
by following the bad advice of his favorite, the Duke of Buckingham, 
incurred the displike of the people. Buckingham was finally assassinated, but 
the damage was already done. Charles was so vacillating that he did not 
hesitate to betray even his«best friends, allowing his enemies to send them 
to the same scaffold upon which he was to end his c ■' royal career. 

The Irish insurrection of 1641 broke out shortly aftci 'ie beheading of 
Strafford, Charles' friend, whom he had betrayed, under whose rule Ireland 
had been quiet. Native chieftains and bishops were the leaders of the 
revolt, and nearly 200,000 men, women and children were killed within a 
few weeks. 

Charles could not subdue the rebellion, as Parliament, by this time, had 
deprived him of all authority. He finally rebelled against Parliament, and 
war between the King and the national legislature resulted. 

Parliament had taken into their own hands Hull, Portsmouth, and the 
Tower of London, in which places were stored the arms and ammunition 
laid up for the defense of the kingdom. They now required that the King 
should give up to them the power of calling out the militia. Charles 
refused, for this would have made the Parliament absolute masters of Eng- 
land; but he saw plainly that he must either agree to all their demands, or 
maintain his rights by force. 

On the 22nd of August, 1642, the King set up his standard at Notting- 
ham. The first battle was fought on the 23rd of October, at Edge Hill, in 
Warwickshire. At Naseby, in 1645, Charles' forces were utterly routed, 
and two years later the King fell into the hands of Parliament. 

Oliver Cromwell, leader of the Parliamentary forces, was virtually the 
autocrat and ruler of England; his men demanded Charles' Hfe, and, in 
obedience to this, the remnants of Parliament, called the "Rump," tried 
Charles and sentenced him to death. The King was beheaded on the 30th 
of January, 1649. 

On the scaffold Charles forgave his enemies, and prayed that his death 
might not be laid to their charge. Then he took off the jewel of the Garter 
and gave it to Bishop Juxon, with the word "Remember." Kneeling down 



EDWARD VI. TO CHARLES I. 543 

by the block, he spent a few moments in prayer, then gave the signal by 
stretching out his arms, and at one blow his head was struck off. 

The executioner, whose face was hidden by a mask, held it up in sight 
of the people, saying, "This is the head of a traitor." 

The news of the King's death was received throughout Europe with 
a thrill of horror. The Czar of Russia drove the English envoy from his 
court. The ambassador of France was withdrawn on the proclamation of 
the Republic. 

The Protestant powers of the Continent seemed more anxious than any 
to disavow all connection with a Protestant people who had brought their 
King to the block. Holland took the lead in acts of open hostility to the 
new power as soon as the news of the execution reached The Hague. The 
States-General waited solemnly on the Prince of Wales, who took the title 
of Charles H., and recognized him as "Majesty," while they refused an 
audience to the English envoys. 

Their Stadtholder, his brother-in-law, the Prince of Orange, was sup- 
ported by popular sympathy in the aid and encouragement he afforded to 
Charles; and eleven ships of the English fleet, which had found a refuge at 
The Hague ever since their revolt from Parliament, were suffered to sail 
under Rupert's command, and to render the seas unsafe for English traders. 

The danger, however, was far greater nearer home. In Scotland even 
the zealous Presbyterians, whom Cromwell had restored to power, refused 
to follow England on its rejection of monarchy. Argyle and his fellow- 
leaders proclaimed Charles H. as King on the news of his father's death; 
and at once dispatched an embassy to The Hague to invite him to ascend 
the throne. 

In Ireland the factions who ever since the rebellion had turned the 
country into a chaos, the old Irish CathoHcs or native party, the Catholics 
of the English Pale, the Episcopalian Royalists, the Presbyterian Royalists 
of the north, had at last been brought to some sort of union by the diplom- 
acy of Ormond; and called on Charles to land at once in a country where 
he would find three-fourths of its people devoted to his cause. 

Of the dangers which threatened the new Commonwealth some were 



544 EDWARD VI. TO CHARLES I. 

more apparent than real. The rivalry of France and Spain, both anxious 
for its friendship, secured it from the hostility of the greater powers of the 
Continent; and the ill-will of Holland could be delayed, if not averted, by 
negotiations. 

The acceptance of the Covenant was insisted on by Scotland before it 
would formally receive Charles as its ruler, and nothing but necessity would 
induce him to comply with such a demand. On the side of Ireland the 
danger was more pressing, and an army of twelve thousand men was set 
apart for a vigorous prosecution of the Irish war. 

But the real difficulties were the difficulties at home. The death of 
Charles gave fresh vigor to the royalist cause. 

Charles was forty-eight years old at the time of his death. He left six 
children: Charles, who took the title of King; James, Duke of York; Mary, 
who had married the Prince of Orange; Henrietta, Elizabeth, and Henry. 



CHAPTER XXXI. 

CromweU's Protectorate and the Commonwealth — His Despotic Rule — Dissolution 
of the "long Parliament" — Charles II. on the Throne — Plague and Fire in 
London — James II. — William and Mary — "Good" dueen Anne, Last of the 
Stuarts — The Four Georges of Brunswick — William IV., the "Sailor King" 
— Victoria I. 

CROMWELL was proclaimed Lord Protector of the Commonwealth, 
the kingdom being obsolete, nearly five years after Charles' death. 
He dissolved Parliament with his troops and summoned one to his 
liking. He was solemnly installed in Westminster Hall, presented with 
the Bible, with the sword of state, with everything but the crown — for his 
army would not hear the name of King. 

Before he was proclaimed, however, the government of England was, 
a portion of the time, vested in a Council of State, consisting of forty-one 
members, elected by what was left of the House of Commons of Parlia- 
ment, this Council being entrusted with full executive power at home and 
abroad. 

But if the "Rump" consented to profit by the work of the soldiers, it 
showed no will to signify its approval of it. A majority of the members of 
the Council declined the oath offered to them at their eadiest meeting, 
pledging them to an approval of the King's death and the establishment of 
the Commonwealth. 

In the nation at large the repudiation of the army's work was universal. 
Half the judges retired from the bench. Thousands of refusals met the 
demand of an engagement to be faithful to the Republic which was made 
from all beneficed clergymen and public functionaries. 

It was not till May, and even then in spite of the ill-will of the citizens, 
that the Council ventured to proclaim the Commonwealth in London. 

It was plain England had no mind to see her old parliamentary liberties 
set aside for a military rule. But in truth the army itself never dreamed of 
establishing such a rule. Still less did it dream of leaving the conduct of 

545 



546 CROMWELL TO VICTORIA. 

affairs in the hands of the small body of members who still called them- 
selves the House of Commons, a body which numbered hardly a hundred, 
and whose average attendance was little more than fifty. In reducing it 
to the mere shadow of a House the army had never contemplated its con- 
tinuance as a permanent assembly; it had, in fact, insisted as a condition of 
even its temporary continuance that it should prepare a bill for the sum- 
moning of a fresh Parliament. 

The plan put forward by the Council of Officers is still interesting as 
the basis of many later efforts toward parliamentary reform. It advised a 
dissolution in the spring, the assembling every two years of a new Parlia- 
ment consisting of four hundred members, elected by all householders 
ratable to the poor, and a redistribution of seats which would have given 
the privilege or representation to every place of importance. 

Paid military officers and civil officials were excluded from election. 
The plan was apparently accepted by the Commons, and a bill based on 
it was again and again discussed. But it was soon whispered about that 
the House had no mind to dissolve itself. 

Whatever might be the hopes of the soldiers or their leaders, the 
shrewder statesmen who sat at Westminster knew that the country was 
eager to undo the work that had been done; and that the first effort of a 
fairly chosen Parliament would be to put an end to the Commonwealth 
and to religious liberty. 

Their aim therefore was to gain time; to continue their rule till what 
they looked on as a passing phase of national feeling had disappeared, and 
till the great results which they had looked for from their policy both at 
home and abroad had reconciled the nation to the new system of govern- 
ment. 

After the dissolution of the Council of State a provisional Council, con- 
sisting of eight officers of high rank and four civilians, with Cromwell at 
the head, was named, and this was the executive power of the nation. 
Cromwell, as Captain-General, was forced to recognize his responsibility 
for the maintenance of public order. The one power left in England was 
the power of the sword. 



CROMWELL TO VICTORIA. 547 

But, as in the revolution of 1648, so in the revolution of 1653, no thought 
of military despotism can be fairly traced in the acts of the general or the 
army. They were in fact far from regarding their position as a revolutionary 
one. 

Though incapable of justification on any formal ground, their proceed- 
ings since the establishment of the Commonwealth had as yet been substan- 
tially in vindication of the rights of the country to representation and 
self-government; and public opinion had gone fairly with the army in its 
demand for a full and efficient body of representatives, as well as in its 
resistance to the project by which the Rump would have deprived half 
England of its right of election. 

The Council decided upon the plan of convening a Parliament on a 
reformed basis of representation, though such a basis had no legal sanction. 
The House was to consist of four hundred members from England, thirty 
from Scotland, and thirty from Ireland. The seats hitherto assigned to 
small and rotten boroughs were transferred to larger constituencies, and for 
the most part to counties. 

All special rights of voting in the election of members were abolished, 
and replaced by a general right of suffrage, based on the possession of real 
or personal property to the value of two hundred pounds. Catholics and 
"Malignants," as those who had fought for the King were called, were 
excluded for the while from the franchise. 

The dread of disorder during the interval of its election, as well as a 
longing for "settlement," drove the Council to complete their work by 
pressing the office of "Protector" upon Cromwell. 

If we follow his own statement, it was when they urged that the accept- 
ance of such a Protectorate actually limited his power as Lord-General, 
and "bound his hands to act nothing without the consent of a Council 
until the Parliament," that the post was accepted. 

The powers of the new Protector indeed were strictly limited. 
Though the members of the Council were originally named by him, each 
member was irremovable save by consent of the rest: their advice was 
necessary in all foreign affairs, their consent in matters of peace and war, 



548 CROMWELL TO VICTORIA. 

their approval in nominations to the great offices of state, or the disposal 
of the military or civil power. With this body, too, lay the choice of all 
future Protectors. 

To the administrative check of the Council was added the political check 
of the Parliament. 

Few Parliaments have ever been more memorable or more truly repre- 
sentative of the English people than the Parliament of 1654. It was the 
first Parliament where members from Scotland and Ireland sat side by side 
with those from England, as in the Parliament of to-day. 

The members for rotten boroughs and pocket-boroughs had dis- 
appeared. In spite of the exclusion of royalists and Catholics from the 
polling-booths, and the arbitrary erasure of the names of a few ultra-repub- 
lican members by the Council, the House had a better title to the name of 
a "free Parliament" than any which had sat before. 

The freedom with which the electors had exercised their right of voting 
was seen indeed in the large number of Presbyterian members who were 
returned. 

The first business of the House was clearly to consider the question of 
government; but Cromwell, angry and discontented, declared it dissolved 
in January, 1655. 

The royalists were astir again; and he attributed their renewed hopes 
to the hostile attitude which he ascribed to Parliament. The army, which 
remained unpaid while the supplies were delayed, was seething with dis- 
content. 

"It looks," said the Protector, "as if the laying grounds for a quarrel 
had rather been designed than to give the people settlement. Judge 
yourselves whether the contesting of things that were provided for by this 
government hath been profitable expense of time for the good of this 
nation." 

The dissolution of the Parliament of 1654 was a turning point in the 
relations of England and the army. As yet neither the people nor the 
soldiers had fairly recognized the actual state of afifairs. 

From the revolution of 1648 tlie sword had been supreme, but its 



CROMWELL TO VICTORIA. 651 

supremacy had been disguised by the continuance of the "Rump." When 
the "Rump" was expelled the military rule which followed still seemed 
only provisional. 

The bulk of Englishmen and the bulk of the army itself looked on its 
attitude as simply imposed on it by necessity, and believed that with the 
assembly of a Parliament all would return to a legal course. 

But Parliament had come and gone; and the army still refused to lay 
down the sword. On the contrary, it seemed at last to resolve to grasp 
frankly the power which it had so long shrunk from openly wielding. 

All show of constitutional rule was now at an end. The Protectorate, 
deprived by its own act of all chance of legal sanction, became a simple 
tyranny. 

But before the overpowering strength of the army even this general 
discontent was powerless. Yorkshire, where the royalist insurrection was 
expected to be most formidable, never ventured to rise at all. There were 
risings in Devon, Dorset, and the Welsh Marches, but they were quickly 
put down, and their leaders brought to the scaffold. 

Easily, however, as the revolt was suppressed, the terror of the Govern- 
ment was seen in the energetic measures to which Cromwell resorted in 
the hope of securing order. The country was divided into ten military 
governments, each with a major-general at its head, who was empowered 
to disarm all papists and royalists, and to arrest suspected persons. 

Funds for the support of this military despotism were provided by an 
Ordinance of the Council of State, which enacted that all who had at any 
time borne arms for the King should pay every year a tenth part of their 
income, in spite of the Act of Oblivion, as a fine. 

The despotism of the major-generals was seconded by the older expedi- 
ents of tyranny. The rejected clergy had been zealous in promoting the 
insurrection, and they were forbidden in revenge to act as chaplains or as 
tutors. 

The press was placed under a strict censorship. Payment of taxes levied 
by the sole authority of the Protector was enforced by distraint; and when 



552 CROMWELL TO VICTORIA. 

a collector was sued in the courts for redress, the counsel for the prosecu- 
tion were sent to the Tower. 

If pardon indeed could ever be won for a tyranny, the wisdom and 
grandeur with which he used the power usurped would win pardon for the 
Protector. The greatest among the many great enterprises undertaken 
by the Long Parliament had been the union of the three Kingdoms: and 
that of Scotland with England had been brought about. 

But its practical realization was left to Cromwell. In four months of 
hard fighting General Monk brought the Highlands to a new tranquillity; 
and the presence of an army of eight thousand men, backed by a line of 
forts, kept the most restless of the clans in good order. 

The settlement of the country was brought about by the temperance 
and sagacity of Monk's successor. General Deane. No further interference 
with the Presbyterian system was attempted beyond the suppression of 
the General Assembly. 

But rehgious Hberty was resolutely protected, and Deane ventured 
even to interfere on behalf of the miserable victims whom Scotch bigotry 
was torturing and burning on the charge of witchcraft. Even steady 
royalists acknowledged the justice of the Government and the wonderful 
discipline of its troops. 

Ireland proving rebellious Cromwell subdued it in a frightfully severe 
manner; he ruled like a despot at home, but he made the English flag 
respected throughout the world. 

After his death, on September 3rd, 1658, being buried in Westminster 
Abbey, his son Richard was ostensibly Protector for two years, but the 
army was really the governing force. In March, 1660, the "Long Parlia- 
ment" met, only to dissolve, having been in existence nineteen years, and 
a new one was chosen. 

On May 8th, Charles, the son of Charles L, was proclaimed as King 
Charles II., and the latter was heartily welcomed by the people, who were 
tired of iron rule and no rule at all. Parliament had Cromwell's bones 
disinterred, hanged on a gibbet at Tyburn and then thrown into a hole 
under the gallows; many of those who voted for the death of Charles I. were 



CROMWELL TO VICTORIA. '553. 

executed; many of those who had fought for Charles II. were neglected, 
and the King spent his time in amusements. 

Charles restored the English Church and the bishops and clergy who 
had been deprived of their offices were reinstated. It was hoped some plan 
might be formed by which Churchmen and Presbyterians could agree, but 
the Presbyterians wanted too many changes. 

In 1665 broke out the Great Plague of London. The city had been 
many times visited by the plague, for the old wooden houses and the nar- 
row, winding streets harbored infection; but so terrible a pestilence as this 
had not been known since the Black Death, in the days of Edward III. It 
began in the winter, and while the weather continued cold not many per- 
sons died, though the number increased weekly. But in May, when the 
air grew warm and close, the sickness increased fearfully, and went on 
growing worse and worse till September, when the deaths were ten thou- 
sand a week. The King and court fled to Oxford, and all who could do so 
shut up their houses and shops and went away, carrying the infection with 
them. 

About one hundred thousand persons perished during the pestilence, 
which was followed, on the 2nd of September, 1666, by the Great Fire. 
This broke out on Fish Street Hill, and a tempestuous wind, which was 
raging at the time, blew the flames from house to house and from street to 
street with frightful rapidity. Four days and four nights the fire burned 
furiously, till the ancient Cathedral of St. Paul's, eighty-nine churches, thir- 
teen thousand houses, and many public buildings had been reduced to 
ashes. 

Charles' reign was a turbulent one, and, altogether, most unsatisfac- 
tory to the people, for, among other things, he allowed the Dutch fleet, 
under De Ruyter, to sail up the Thames and burn the dockyards at Chat- 
ham, Charles having permitted the English navy to sadly deteriorate. He 
died February 6th, 1685, after a round of pleasure. 

The entry of Charles II. into Whitehall marked a deep and lasting 
change in the temper of the English people. With it modern England 
began. The influences which had up to this time moulded her history, the 



564 CROMWELL TO VICTORIA. 

theological influence of the Reformation, the monarchical influence of the 
new kingship, the feudal influence of the Middle Ages, the yet earlier 
influence of tradition and custom, suddenly lost power over the minds of 
men. 

From the moment of the Restoration we find ourselves all at once 
among the great currents of thought and activity which have gone on 
widening and deepening from that time to this. 

The England around us becomes our own England, an England whose 
chief forces are industry and science, the love of popular freedom and of 
law, an England which presses steadily forward to a large social justice 
and equality, and which tends more and more to bring every custom and 
tradition, religious, intellectual, and political, to the test of pure reason. 

Between modern thought, on some at least of its more important sides, 
and the thought of men before the Restoration there is a great gulf fixed. 
A political thinker in the present day would find it equally hard to discuss 
any point of statesmanship with Lord Burleigh or with Oliver Cromwell. 

He would find no point of contact between their ideas of national life 
or national welfare, their conception of government or the ends of govern- 
ment, their mode of regarding economical and social questions, and his own. 

But no gulf of this sort parts us from the men who followed the Restor- 
ation. From that time to this, whatever differences there may have been 
as to the practical conclusions drawn from them, there has been a substantial 
agreement as to the ground of our political, our social, our intellectual, and 
religious life. 

Newton and Sir Humphry Davy could have talked together without 
a sense of severance. There would have been nothing to hinder a perfectly 
clear discussion on government or law between John Locke and Jeremy 
Bentham. 

The change from the old England to the new was so startling we are 
apt to look on it as a more sudden change than it really was; and the 
outer aspect of the Restoration does much to strengthen this impression 
of suddenness. 

The whole face of England was changed in an instant All that was 



CROMWELL TO VICTORIA. 555 

noblest and best in Puritanism was whirled away with its pettiness and its 
tyranny in the current of the nation's hate. Religion had been turned into 
a system of political and social oppression, and it fell with that system's fall. 
Godliness became a byword of scorn; sobriety in dress, in speech, in 
manners was flouted as a mark of the detested Puritanism. Butler in his 
"Hudibras" poured insult on the past with a pedantic buffoonery for which 
the general hatred, far more than its humor, secured a hearing. 

Dueling and raking became the marks of a fine gentleman; and grave 
divines winked at the follies of "honest fellows" who fought, gambled, 
swore, drank, and ended a day of debauchery by a night in the gutter. 
Life among men of fashion vibrated between frivolity and excess. 

Vicious as the stage was when it opened its doors again on the fall of 
the Commonwealth it only reflected the general vice of the day. The 
Comedy of the Restoration borrowed everything from the contemporary 
Comedy of France save the poetry, the delicacy, and good taste which there 
veiled its grossness. 

It is easy, however, to exaggerate the extent of this reaction. So far 
as we can judge from the memoirs of the time its more violent forms were 
practically confined to the capital and the court. 

The mass of Englishmen were satisfied with getting back their may- 
poles and mince-pies; and a large part of the people remained Puritan in 
life and belief though they threw aside many of the outer characteristics of 
Puritanism. 

Nor was the revolution in feeling as sudden as it seemed. Even if the 
political strength of Puritanism had remained unbroken its social influence 
must soon have ceased. The young Englishmen who grew up in the midst 
of civil war knew nothing of the bitter tyranny which gave its zeal and 
fire to the religion of their fathers. 

From the social and religious anarchy around them, from the endless 
controversies and discussions of the time, they drank in the spirit of 
skepticism, of doubt, of free inquiry. 

If religious enthusiasm had broken the spell of ecclesiastical tradition 
its own extravagance broke the spell of religious enthusiasm; and the new 



556 CROMWELL TO VICTORIA. 

generation turned in disgust to try forms of political government and 
spiritual belief by the cooler and less fallible test of reason. 

It is this rationalizing tendency of the popular mind, this indifference 
to the traditions and ideals of the past, this practical and experimental 
temper, which found its highest expression in the sudden popularity of the 
pursuit of physical science. 

Of the two little companies of inquirers already noticed as gathering 
at the close of the Civil War, that which remained in the capital and had 
at last been broken up by the troubles of the Second Protectorate was 
revived at the Restoration by the return to London of the more eminent 
members of the group which had assembled at Oxford. 

But the little company of philosophers had hardly begun their meetings 
at Gresham College when they found themselves objects of a general inter- 
est. Science suddenly became the fashion of the day. 

Charles II. was himself a fair chemist, and took a keen interest in the 
problems of navigation. 

Poets like Dryden and Cowley, courtiers like Sir Robert Murray and 
Sir Kenelm Digby, joined the scientific company to which in token of his 
sympathy with it the King gave the title of "The Royal Society." States- 
men felt honored at being chosen its presidents. 

The definite establishment of the Royal Society in 1662 marks the open- 
ing of a great age of scientific discovery in England. 

Almost every year of the half-century which followed saw some step 
made to a wider and truer knowledge of physical fact. The first national 
observatory rose at Greenwich, and modern astronomy began with the 
long series of observations which immortalized the name of Flamsteed. 

His successor, Halley, undertook the investigation of the tides, of 
comets, and of terrestrial magnetism. Hooke improved the microscope 
and gave a fresh impulse to microscopical research. 

Boyle made the air-pump a means of advancing the science of pneu- 
matics, and became the founder of experimental chemistry. 

Wilkins pointed forward to the science of philology in his scheme of a 



CROMWELL TO VICTORIA. 557 

universal language. Sydenham introduced a careful observation of 
nature and facts which changed the whole face of medicine. 

The physiological researches of Willis first threw light upon the structure 
of the brain. 

Woodward was the founder of mineralogy and John Ray was the first 
to raise zoology to the rank of a science; and the first scientific classifica- 
tion of animals was attempted by him. 

Modern botany began with Ray's "History of Plants," and the researches 
of an Oxford professor, Robert Morrison; while Grow divided with Mal- 
pighi the credit of founding the study of vegetable physiology. 

Great as some of these names undoubtedly are, they are lost in the luster 
of Isaac Newton. At twenty-three he facilitated the calculation of planetary 
movements by his theory of Fluxions. The optical discoveries to which he 
was led by his experiments with the prism, and which he partly disclosed 
in the lectures which he delivered as Mathematical Professor at Cambridge, 
were embodied in the theory of light which he laid before the Royal Society 
on becoming a Fellow of it. 

His discovery of the law of gravitation had been made as early as 1666; 
but the erroneous estimate which was then generally received of the earth's 
diameter prevented him from disclosing it for sixteen years; and it was 
not till 1687, on the eve of the Revolution, that he revealed to the world 
his new theory of the Universe. 

James H., Charles H.'s brother, then ascended the throne, and the first 
thing he did was to put the navy in good condition and declare his inten- 
tion of upholding the Church of England. He failed to do the latter, 
however, for he celebrated Mass openly and with pomp, encouraged 
CathoHcism and greatly offended his Protestant subjects. 

The Duke of Monmouth's rebellion, he claiming to be a lawful son of 
Charles H., and defender of the Protestant religion, was easily put down; 
Monmouth was beheaded, together with hundreds of his followers, 
"Kirkes Lambs" being selected to do most of the bloody work, with the 
assistance of Judge Jefferies, the man of infamous memory, who presided 
at the "Bloody Assizes." 



558 CROMWELL TO VICTORIA. 

He hanged and quartered some hundreds of the prisoners, sentenced 
others to be flogged without mercy, and sent a thousand into slavery in 
the West Indies. James thought himself so firmly seated on the throne 
that he might venture to set aside the laws which forbade placing Catholics 
in high office. In the reign of Charles II. the Test Act had been passed, 
which kept Catholics out of office. During Monmouth's rebellion, the 
King increased the standing army, and placed several Roman Catholic 
officers over new regiments. 

He hoped Parliament would alter the law, but, finding they were not 
inclined to do so, took upon himself to disregard it. He raised Catholics 
to high offices in the state as well as the army, and set Catholic governors 
over the finest colleges in Oxford; forbade the English clergy to preach 
those doctrines in which the English Church differed from the Roman, 
and when they refused he set up a new Court of High Commission, with 
Chancellor Jefferies at its head, to prosecute bishops and clergy who 
offended him. 

Even Compton, Bishop of London, who had been the tutor of his daugh- 
ters, was forbidden to exercise his office. 

William, Prince of Orange, husband of the King's eldest daughter, 
had been watching all that took place in England. He had hoped England 
would join in league with Spain, Germany, and Holland to withstand the 
ambitions of the King of France, Louis XIV., but instead of opposing 
Louis, James secretly received money from him, as his brother Charles 
had done. 

William did not openly interfere until 1688, when he appeared in Eng- 
land, at the head of a body of troops, and called on the nation to rise in 
defense of their religion and liberty. 

The Prince bore these words embroidered in large letters on his flag: 
"I will maintain the liberties of England and the Protestant religion." 

James fled, but was captured and returned to London. As William 
did not care to harm his wife's father he allowed James to go to France. 
At the time of King James' flight, the Prince of Orange and his army had 
not advanced beyond Hungerford, and the populace of London took 



CROMWELL TO VICTORIA. 559 

opportunity to plunder and destroy the Roman Catholic chapels and con- 
vents. The infamous Judge Jefferies was put in the Tower of London, 
where he died. 

One great result of the Revolution, as it was called, was the passage by 
Parliament of the Bill of Rights, and this was the end of the long struggle 
between the sovereign and the nation which had been going on ever since 
the reign of James I. Since the Revolution, whatever wars England may 
have had abroad, she has had peace at home; for since James II. no EngHsh 
sovereign has attempted to set his own will above that of the people. 

From the nth of December, 1688, to the 13th of February, 1689, there 
was no King, and this period is called the Interregnum. William, Prince 
of Orange, and Mary, were proclaimed King and Queen on the latter date; 
the Prince was at this time thirty-eight, his wife twenty-six years of age. 
Meantime, King James had gone to Ireland, and William, meeting him 
and his forces at Boyne River, on the ist (or 12th) of July, 1690, routed him. 
James fled to France and never returned. 

Mary died in 1694, and three years later Louis XIV. acknowledged 
WiUiam as King of England. No previous contest had ever cost England 
so much money; and it was to provide for these great expenses that the 
National Debt first began. 

James 11. died in September, 1701, and Louis XIV. acknowledged the 
son of James as King of England. In the midst of the preparations for 
war Wilham died, being injured by a fall from his horse, and breathed his 
last March 8th, 1702. 

William was succeeded by Anne, his sister-in-law, who had married 
Prince George of Denmark. Her children were all dead, and as the son 
of James II. was a Catholic, he could not inherit the throne. The nearest 
Protestant relations of the royal family were the Princess Sophia of Bruns- 
wick and her son George, Elector of Hanover; and Parliament decided that 
the crown should go tO' them after the death of Anne. Sophia was the 
daughter of Elizabeth, Queen of Bohemia, and granddaughter of James I. 

Anne's reign was distinguished chiefly for the victories of Marlborough. 
The battle of Blenheim, in 1704, where the French were defeated with 



560 CROMWELL TO VICTORIA. 

frightful loss, was rewarded by his grateful sovereign conferring a duke- 
dom upon her victorious general. Some time after Marlborough fell into 
disgrace, was relieved of his command, and the consequence was the dis- 
graceful peace of Utrecht, which lost to England most the advantages 
Marlborough's genius had won. 

Another event of the reign of Anne was the capture of Gibraltar; the 
formal union of Scotland and England was also brought about, this being in 
1707. 

Queen Anne, who died on the ist of August, 1714, was the last sover- 
eign of the House of Stuart. Prince George, of Denmark, her husband, 
had died six years before. The House of Brunswick, or Hanover, now 
succeeded to the crown. 

A number of great writers distinguished the reign of Queen Anne, the 
poetry of Pope and the prose writings of Addison being among the best. 

The Princess Sophia, of Brunswick, having died a few weeks before 
Queen Anne, the crown thereupon passed to her son, the Elector of Han- 
over. 

George I. became King of England when he was fifty-four years old. 
He was at first unpopular. His sympathies were entirely with the Whig 
party and he did not hesitate to remove from office all men who differed 
in opinions. This provoked the leaders of the Tories to lend assistance 
to the son of James H., James Stuart, who was planning to move against 
Great Britain, with the promised aid of Louis XIV. These plans, how- 
ever, were frustrated by the death of Louis. Louis XV., his successor, 
being but a child, France was ruled by the Duke of Orleans as regent, and 
he was not inclined to go to war in behalf of the Stuarts. George L reigned 
about thirteen years, his death occurring at Osnaburgh, in Germany, on 
June nth, 1727. 

When the first of the House of Hanover ascended the English throne, 
the event marked a change in the position of England as a member of the 
European Commonwealth. From the age of the Plantagenets to the age of 
the Revolution the country had stood apart from more than passing contact 
with the fortunes of the Continent. 



CROMWELL TO VICTORIA. 561 

In spite of the conflict with the Armada, EUzabeth aimed at the close, 
as at the beginning of her reign, mainly at keeping her realm as far as might 
be out of the struggle of western Europe against the ambition of Spain. 

Its attitude of isolation was yet more marked when England stood aloof 
from the Thirty Years' War, and after a fitful outbreak of energy under 
Cromwell looked idly on at the earlier efforts of Louis XIV. to become 
master of Europe. But with the Revolution this attitude became impos- 
sible. In driving out the Stuarts William aimed mainly at enlisting Eng- 
land in the league against France; and France backed his effort by espous- 
ing the cause of the exiled King. 

To prevent the undoing of all the Revolution had done, England was 
forced to join the Great Alhance of the European peoples, and reluctantly 
as she was drawn into it she at once found herself its head. Political and 
military genius set William and Marlborough in the forefront of the 
struggle; and the Peace of Utrecht left England the main barrier against 
the ambition of the House of Bourbon. 

Nor was this a position from which any change of domestic policy could 
withdraw her. So long as a Stuart pretender threatened the throne of the 
Revolution, so long every adherent of the cause of the Revolution was 
forced to guard jealously against the supremacy of the power which could 
alone bring about a Jacobite restoration. 

Not only did the Revolution set England irrevocably among the powers 
of Europe, but it assigned her a special place among them. The result of 
the alhance and the war had been to establish what was then called a 
"balance of power" between the great European states; a balance which 
rested indeed not so much on any natural equilibrium of forces as on a 
compromise wrung from warring nations by the exhaustion of a great 
struggle; but which, once recognized and established, could be adapted and 
readjusted, it was hoped, to the varying political conditions of the time. 

Of this balance of power, as recognized and defined in the Treaty of 
Utrecht and its successors, England became the special guardian. Her 
insular position made her almost the one great state which could have no 
dreams of continental aggrandizement; while the main aim of her policy, 



562 CROMWELL TO VICT0RL4. 

that of guarding the throne of the Revolution, secured her fidehty to the 
European settlement which offered an insuperable obstacle to a Jacobite 
invasion. 

Her only interest lay in the maintenance of European peace on the 
basis of an observance of European treaties. 

Of the twenty-five years between the Revolution and the Peace of 
Utrecht all but five were years of war, and the five were a mere breathing- 
space in Vv'hich the combatants on either side were girding themselves for 
fresh hostilities. That the twenty-five years which followed were for 
Europe, as a whole, a time of peace was due in great measure to the zeal 
with which England watched over the settlement that had been brought 
about at Utrecht. 

To a great extent her efforts averted war altogether, and when war 
could not be averted she brought it within as narrow limits and to as 
speedy an end as was possible. Diplomacy spent its ingenuity in countless 
choppings and changings of the smaller territories about the Mediterranean 
and elsewhere; but till the rise of Prussia under Frederick the Great it 
secured Europe as a whole from any world-wide struggle. 

Nor was this maintenance of European peace all the gain the attitude 
of England brought with it. The stubborn policy of the Georgian states- 
men has left its mark on our poHcy ever since. In struggling for peace and 
for the sanctity of treaties, even though the struggle was one of selfish 
interest, England took a ply which she never wholly lost. 

Warlike and imperious as is her national temper, she has never been 
able to free herself from a sense that her business in the world is to seek 
peace alike for herself and for the nations about her, and that the best 
security for peace lies in her recognition, and whatever difficulties and 
seductions, of the force of international engagements and the sanctity of 
treaties. 

A growing sense of the value of peace to an industrial nation, as by a 
growing sense of the moral evil and destructiveness of war, were strong 
influences on the peace-loving temper of the English people; but the sense 
of responsibility for the peace of the world, as a necessary condition of 



CROMWELL TO VICTORIA. 563 

tranquillity and freedom at home, which grew into life with the earlier years 
of the eighteenth centur}^ were yet stronger. 

This closer political contact with Europe was not the only result of the 
new attitude of England. Throughout the age of the Georges she, for the 
first time, exercised an intellectual and moral influence on the European 
world. Hitherto Italian and French impulses had told on English letters or 
on English thought, but neither our literature nor our philosophy had exer- 
cised any corresponding influence on the continent. 

But with the Revolution of 1688 this ignorance came to an end. 
William and Marlborough carried more than English arms across the 
channel; they carried English ideas. 

The combination of material and military greatness with a freedom of 
thought and action hardly known elsewhere, which was revealed in the 
England that sprang from the Revolution of 1688, imposed on the imag- 
ination of men. 

For the first time in history foreigners were learning English, visiting 
England, seeking to understand English life and English opinion. The 
main curiosity that drew them was a political curiosity, but they carried 
back more than political conceptions. 

ReHgious and philosophical notions crossed the channel with politics. 

The world learned that there was an English literature. It heard of 

Shakespeare, wept over Richardson, and bowed before the genius of Swift. 

France, above all, was drawn to this study of a country so near to her, 

and yet so utterly unknown. 

Such an influence could hardly have been aroused by English letters 
had they not given expression to what was the general temper of Europe 
at the time. The cessation of religious wars, the upgrowth of great states 
with a new political and administrative organization, the rapid progress of 
intelligence, showed their effect everywhere in the same rationalizing 
temper, extending not only over theology but over each department of 
thought, the same interest in political and social speculation, the same drift 
toward physical inquiry, the same tendency to a diffusion and populariza- 
tion of knowledge. 



564 CROMWELL TO VICTORIA. 

Everywhere the tone of thought became secular, scientific, prosaic; 
everywhere men looked away from the past with a certain contempt; every- 
where the social fusion which followed on the wreck of the Middle Ages 
was expressing itself in a vulgarization of ideas, in an appeal from the world 
of learning to the world of general intelligence, in a reliance on the "com- 
mon sense" of mankind. 

Nor was it only a unity of spirit which pervaded the literature of the 
eighteenth century. Everywhere there was as striking an identity of form. 
In poetry this showed itself in the death of the lyric, as in the universal 
popularity of the rhetorical ode, in the loss of all delight in variety of poetic 
measure, and in the growing restriction of verse to the single form of the 
ten-syllable line. 

Prose, too, dropped everywhere its grandeur with its obscurity, and 
became the same quick, clear instrument of thought. 

King George II. was forty-four years old at the time of his acces- 
sion. His reign was marked by a number of wars, waged to retain his 
German possessions. Queen Caroline, his wife, displayed much tact and 
good judgment in the management of the government in the absence of 
the King. 

Both the English and French had established colonies in North America 
and found a profitable trade with their New World possessions. It was 
not long before there was war between the two countries, England finally 
driving the French off of the North American continent. 

The reign of George II. was brought to a close on the 25th day of 
October, 1760, by his sudden and unexpected death at the age of seventy- 
six years. He had reigned nearly thirty-four years. His wife died many 
years before. His eldest son, Frederic, Prince of Wales, had also died, and 
his eldest living son succeeded to the throne under the title of George III. 
The latter became King at the age of twenty-two, at a period when England 
had been very successful in almost all parts of the world in acquiring terri- 
tory. Before George died he had lost the North American Colonies. Dur- 
ing the latter part of his reign George III. became insane and his eldest 
son, George, Prince of Wales, was appointed regent. 



CROMWELL TO VICTORIA. 565 

The reign of George III., which continued, to all intents and purposes, 
through a period of nearly sixty years, witnessed many great and world- 
absorbing events. 

King George saw the rise and fall of Napoleon Bonaparte, the second 
war with his old American Colonies, the marvelous advances in education, 
learning and material as well as literary matters, and had he lived a few 
years longer would have occupied the throne as long as his niece, Victoria. 

First Consul Bonaparte's energy and ambition had, in 1800, changed 
the whole face of European affairs. 

From this time until his final downfall England was Napoleon's 
inveterate enemy and would never consent to any sort of a compromise 
with him. 

England was the only country Napoleon had not Invaded and overrun, 
and while English and French troops came together but twice while 
Napoleon was personally on the scene, it was a rather remarkable fact that 
these two times were Napoleon's first and last battles — Toulon and 
Waterloo. 

Napoleon, as Emperor, dominated Europe. On the 14th of October, 
1806, a decisive victory at Jena laid North Germany at the Emperor's feet. 
From Berlin Napoleon marched into the heart of Poland to bring to terms 
the last opponent now left him on the continent; and though checked in 
the winter by the stubborn defense of the Russian forces on the field of 
Eylau, in the summer of 1807 a decisive victory at Friedland brought the 
Czar to consent to the Peace of Tilsit. 

This marked an overthrow for the time of that European settlement 
and balance of power which had been established five years before by the 
Peace of Luneville. The change in his policy had been to a great extent 
forced on Napoleon; for the league of 1805 had shown that his plan of such 
a continental peace as would suffer him to concentrate his whole strength 
on an invasion of Britain was certain to be foiled by the fears of the con- 
tinental states; and that an unquestioned supremacy over Europe was a 
first condition in the struggle with his great rival. 

Even with such a supremacy, indeed, his plans for a descent on Britain 



566 CROMWELL TO VICTORIA. 

itself, or for winning the command of the sea which was the necessary 
preliminary to such a descent, still remained impracticable. 

The battle of Trafalgar had settled the question of an invasion of Eng- 
land;' and a thousand victories on land would not make him master, even 
for a few hours of the "silver streak" of sea between France and Albion, 
which barred his path. But Napoleon was far from abandoning his struggle 
against Britain; on the contrary, he saw in his mastery of Europe the means 
of giving fresh force and effectiveness to his attack in a quarter where his 
foe was still vulnerable. 

It was her wealth that had raised that European coalition against him 
which forced him to break camp at Boulogne; and in his mastery of Europe 
he saw the means of striking at her wealth. His earlier attempts at the 
enforcement of a "Continental System" had broken down with the failure 
of the Northern League; but he now saw a yet more efifective means of 
realizing his dream. 

It was this gigantic project which revealed itself as soon as Jena had 
laid Prussia at his feet. Napoleon was able to find a pretext for his new 
attack in England's own action. By a violent stretch of her rights as a 
combatant she had declared the whole coast occupied by France and its 
allies, from Dantzig to Trieste, to be in a state of blockade. 

It was impossible to enforce such an order as this, but Napoleon, never- 
theless, retorted by issuing the "Berlin decree," in November, 1806. 

England fought Napoleon persistently, and by never-ceasing efforts 
brought about Waterloo. 

George III. died January 29th, 1820. George IV. reigned ten years, Wil- 
liam IV. seven years, and then the glorious rule of Victoria was ushered in. 




DEATH OF QUEEN VICTORIA. 

The Services at Westminster Abbey on January 27th, Dean Bradley 

Preaching the Sermon. 




w 



83 



LRB S '26 




^^^c,<i' 







^^-^^ • 











^^^^' 









"oV 



I^Qf 






'bV" 








• <^ 




V-^^ 












'•• #'\ •■ 














\ V «i* 









.. /\ \^^,: ^^'% \^: /\ %^f^.- /\ '..^ 

<y <^ • • ' 












• .^ 



\ ^°^:^^' "- //^^'."v co\c^.'°. y^.^i'X 






• .V 







<^ .. -^ "• -^ ^ " \* , 



. « o » . o ^ • ' ^ ^-^ 







